Becoming Postmodern

Kathlin L. Ray presented an article, entitled The Postmodern Library in an Age of Assessment at the 2001 Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) conference. In this article she highlights the educational and technological drive that forces libraries to become postmodern. This drive stems from the need to keep up with demands for increased technological resources to stay current in today’s educational and societal systems. The shift to meet patrons/students needs in a postmodern world challenges the nature of many librarians steeped in bibliographic control, unable to shift with the demands of today’s educational focus. The postmodern traits of ambiguity, fluidity, equality, etc. create much difficulty when assessing the library’s success at meeting the needs of patrons (Hatch, 1997, p. 44-45). This shift challenges libraries in the university environment which requires traditional/modern assessment methods to provide adequate funding.

Standards and expectations for libraries have shifted with the onset of the Information Age. “Not until the phenomenal growth of the Web and the emerging digital environment—both postmodern phenomena—have the efficacies of the traditional structures and methodologies of librarianship been seriously challenged” (Ray, 2001, p. 251). These challenges require changes in the organizational culture of libraries. In reality libraries are more of a hybrid organization, than a solidly defined organization. The library has traits of a bureaucracy, in that it has a defined hierarchy of offices or roles and it functions within the system of a university (Hatch, 1997, p. 171). However, the current shift in focus of the library to a more postmodern paradigm has made definitive changes in this structure. This shift is evidenced through changes in ways the library meets the needs of patrons. Whether it is new technology, different instructional methods, or changing cataloguing standards, through becoming more general and open to change the library is becoming more organic and postmodern (Hatch, 1997, p. 170).

Assessment Values

Ray asks “How do we meet these demands for hard scientific evidence when such data are dependent on stable conditions and controllable variables? The dynamic of perpetual change requires that we adopt a new conceptual framework, a different mental construct if the library, now postmodern, is to survive in an age of assessment” (Ray, 2001, p. 250).

She outlines three concepts or tasks that will give new definition to the library:

1. Diffuse boundaries, clear missions.

By having clear boundaries and an unambiguous mission statement the postmodern library will have direction and
focus to meet the needs of patrons and the university’s objectives.

2. From analysis to synthesis, from control to integration.

Shifting the focus from analysis and control to synthesis and integration creates changes in the perception of the
library. The library becomes a fluid changing system, not a structure, limited in scope by preconceived notions of what
a library is and does.

3. Learning as the organizing principle

When the library shifts its focus from simply the mastery of facts and a storehouse of facts to the new educational
paradigm that accentuates process and self-reflection in learning, then it will become a “full partner in the educational
mission of its institution” (Ray, 2001, p. 254). The change in focus of learning methods will enable learning focused
assessment to be possible. This will change assessment from the end product or numbers of patrons served to the
learning process itself (Ray, 2001, p. 253),

Contrary to the effort of continual change and fluidity, is the need to function within a larger bureaucratic order, the university. The prime concern of this bureaucratic system is funding. To maintain a library and to provide useful services to patrons or customers, there has to be adequate funding. To stay viable and meaningful to the community the library is in service to, the library is required to morph or shift to meet the needs of the community. The information presented by Ray can easily apply to other libraries that rely on public or outside funding.

Despite the high tech trappings and organizational innovations, libraries are by their very nature “modernist”
institutions. They embody the values of orderliness, reliability, predictability and rationality. They are of necessity rule-
bound, mechanistic, linear organizations. In fact, this has been their strength. Libraries do an excellent job of efficiently
processing, organizing and making accessible vast amounts of material. This “modern” approach to the world of
information has been successful for hundreds of years. It’s no wonder that librarians keep trying to organize the
electronic information environment; the “elegant, hierarchical, and logical simplicity” of the library’s traditional system
has served us well and is likely to do so for a long time to come (Greenberg, D. as cited by Kay, 2001, p. 251).

Through adaptability and change libraries will remain viable and necessary to communities.

-Penny




References:

Ray, K. L. (2001). The Postmodern Library in an Age of Assessment. Association of College and Research Libraries, retrieved from http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlevents/kray.pdf

Hatch, M. J. (1997). Organization theory: Modern, symbolic and postmodern perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.

Working Girl

How can libraries, traditionally organizations with a high percentage of women as leaders and effective followers, be aware of the obstacles facing entry level hires who aspire to work their way to greater success? The traditional library model is on its way out. Will women’s positions in leadership be phased out as well?

This article observes the practices in place among several fictional organizations as portrayed in the 1988 film, Working Girl. These practices are alleged to serve as obstacles to the heroine’s efforts to overcome her Staten Island roots and “make it” in corporate Manhattan.

This film operates under the assumption that Tess’ obstacles to success are based upon her class and origins. We see Tess riding the Staten Island Ferry into Manhattan during the film’s opening scene. The ferry is packed with several hundred commuter passengers headed to work. The scene serves to illustrate that Tess is working class, and that she faces hardships such as having to commute to work everyday.

Tess’ entry onto the scene is as a secretary to a stock broker who immediately betrays her trust in several ways. Her male supervisor comments snidely about her inability to compete with the ivy-league graduates who would squash her community college credits and secretarial experience in the executive world. He refuses to nominate Tess for a program aimed to uplift members of the working class to executive level jobs. Tess is forced to face numerous inequalities as a woman in a low-paid, and hardly respected, position. Her conscience will not allow her to accept every infringement on her dignity, however. When her boss sets her up with his sleazy colleague under the false pretense that she would be interviewed for a better job, Tess retaliates against him with force considered inappropriate in her organization (no mention is made of the degree to which her supervisor behaved inappropriately…this, because he is established in his position, maintains authority, and is given license to behave in such a way toward a woman in such a low position).

Her retaliation leads to her dismissal. Upon interviewing with her placement agency for a new position, Tess illuminates that she completed her degree (associate’s? bachelor’s?) with honors, following five years of night school. It is evident that Tess works hard in attempt to improve herself and her life in general. The corporate world in which Tess wishes to succeed is composed of a wide set of classical core values; that is, a general concern for wealth above rationality, environment, meaning, and creativity (Hatch 1997). Instead, Tess struggles with carrying all of these values (outlined by Hatch [1997] as values associated with early modern-postmodern perspectives) while amidst a slew of static organizations that look for wealth and little more in their missions.

Tess is placed with a new employer, a woman named Katherine, who claims to envision the two of them working closely together, as a team. Tess is elated to finally work for a person with postmodern ideas about collaboration between members of differing ranks within the organization. Later, however, she finds that her boss’ intentions were never to credit Tess for the ideas she contributed toward hers and Katherine’s success. Tess is forced to reconsider her newfound understanding of working in this team environment. While teamwork is clouted, it is not practiced. Katherine resides firmly in the decision making model of a hierarchical organization. She is at the top, with Tess far below her, and though she attempts to string connections between the two positions, it is apparent that those string connections are false.

After a skiing accident, Katherine is forced away from work for several weeks to recover. She asks Tess to “take over” all communications from her desk during that time. Tess takes over more than Katherine’s desk. She assumes an identity like Katherine’s—that of a well-refined executive with cunning and drive to succeed. This is an underlying quality in Tess’ character throughout the introduction of the story; it is only when asked to, “take over” by Katherine does Tess assume the physical role as well. She adopts many of the artifacts of a successful executive, including a briefcase, new haircut, borrowed jewelry and clothing.

While Katherine is away, Tess makes her move. With the help of Jack Trainer, an investment banker with coincidental ties to both Tess and Katherine, Tess delivers her idea “to the top” and prevails over her lot as secretary-for-life. Her efforts prove to those at the top that she is capable of functioning in an executive position without jumping through the normal (ivy-league) hoops.

While Tess plays the role of a top-level executive, Katherine discovers the transgression (remember, Tess is Katherine’s secretary) and exposes Tess as a lying imposter, rather than the intelligent, creative thinker the viewer sees in Tess. This inability to recognize creativity limits Katherine’s lot to being a top-down executive in a hierarchical organization. Interestingly, while Katherine’s organization is relatively static, the other organizations that Tess has found to work with her idea are open to her suggestions. Had they known Tess was merely a secretary, these organizations might never have heard her proposal.

This film is severely wrought with rigid hierarchical structures in the various organizations that are represented. The heroine seeks to break through these hierarchies to promote herself as a modernist (hard worker) as well as a postmodernist (creative, non-acceptance of classical norms, willingness to take risks to achieve personal success {freedom}) catalyst. Her ability to maneuver among several organizations to bring her concept to fruition indicates that she has rejected the stratification of labor and decision making that occurs in traditional organizations (Hatch 1997). As a secretary in a traditional organization, Tess would remain at the bottom, as a laborer, with Katherine and the organizations with which she is negotiating at the middle—implementing and integrating multiple systems of input, and those who implement institutional decisions at the very top.

The Working Girl example serves to illustrate the high degree to which many women in the workforce had few options but to remain in the class by which they were initiated. Libraries have operated within similar stratification traditionally, with clerks functioning as laborers, middle managers functioning as integrators, and directors functioning to implement institutional decisions. With the shift away from classical and modern organization in general, libraries have repositioned the standard positions of leadership and assumed more teamwork-motivated structures. Library staff are interconnected through continuing education programs, conferences, and forums to support the various technological needs that continually arise to keep libraries at the forefront of patron service. Stratification among women and men in these networks is likely to diminish as team-building efforts are implemented and assessed.

~Sarah-Lynda Johnson

References

Hatch, M J. (1997). Organization theory: Modern, symbolic and postmodern perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.

Wade, K. (1988). Working Girl. Beverly Hills, CA: Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corporation.

Organizational Core Values and Diversity Training

I walked into my mandatory diversity training for Multnomah County with a bit of skepticism. As I sat in my chair, my brain wandered. Is it possible for someone to be “trained” in diversity? How does the County even define culture and diversity? In what way will this diversity training reflect the core values of Multnomah County? I had no idea, but hoped that I would get some answers.

Defining Diversity

An employee training workbook titled, “Diversity: A World of Difference” was at each seat for the training. Inside the workbook were various training activities along with information on Multnomah County Diversity Initiative. The workbook defined culture and diversity as follows:

Culture is like the air that we breathe: we take it for granted, rarely think about it and assume that our viewpoint is merely the human viewpoint. Culture is pervasive and invisible, like the air. It programs our beliefs (many of them hidden), our mental maps for making sense of the world, our view of reality, and forms the framework for our behavior. Diversity is how our personal cultures show up in our lives. It has become verbal shorthand for a workforce that is multiethnic, multiracial and multicultural.

This definition of culture and diversity is much like Schein’s definition of culture and diversity as stated by Mary Jo Hatch in Organization Theory, “the essence of culture is its core of basic assumptions and established beliefs.” (1997, p. 217). Schein goes on to claim that “when new members are brought into a culture…they are socialized to accept cultural values.” The socialization process within Multnomah County begins when new hires are given their packet of information about the county, which includes their anti-discrimination policy. The diversity training serves as a means to drive home the cultural values of the organization.

Defining Core Values?

In their 2000 article, “Changing the Culture of Libraries,” Ronald Patkus and Brendan A. Rapple state that it can be difficult to define the core values of an organization in such a manner that “they are genuinely accepted by all employees with no accompanying background tittering.” (2000, p. 198). During the diversity training, there were some employees that obviously did not accept the values of the organization. There were those that sat back and listened, their arms crossed and eyes often rolling. They chatted with their neighbors and showed with their inattention that they did not believe the training was of value.

The diversity training focused mainly on activities as a way of defining the core values of the organization. At no point during the training were the values of the county directly referenced. In fact, the diversity statement and anti-discrimination policy of the County was never even mentioned. This makes it difficult, if not impossible, for the attendees to have any semblance of a definition of the core values. If the purpose of the diversity training is to socialize new employees of the County into the culture, then the values of the culture must be more directly referenced.

Libraries and Diversity Training

Multnomah County Library operates as an organizational subculture within the larger culture of Multnomah County. The library must adhere to the stated diversity core values of the county while maintaining their separate subculture. New employees of the Library must attend the mandatory County diversity training much as any other new employee of the County. This enables the County to ensure that all new employees are enculturated into its stated core values.

Conclusion

I left the training a bit frustrated. In no way did I feel that I had learned anything valuable about diversity or cultural awareness. Although I had gotten the County’s definition of culture and diversity, their core values were addressed nowhere within the training. I question the value of a mandatory training in diversity that does not address the values of the organization in any overt way. I believe that in order for the training to be more successful, it must address its stated values in a more direct manner.

--Megan Banasek

References

Hatch, M J. (1997). Organization theory: Modern, symbolic and postmodern perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press

Patkus, R and Rapple, B.A. (2000). Changing the culture of libraries: The role of core values. Library Administration and Management, 14(4), 197-204.

pictures of class 2nd weekend

Organizational Culture: Not Just Wallpaper it's a Resource

Abstract
An organization’s culture is integral to its success or failure. By having a clearly culture, an organization can attract employees that will be a good fit, manage their public image, sustain morale and have a direction for the company. Kaarst-Brown et al. believe that this element is so crucial they consider it to be a strategic resource (2004, p. 33). That is, organizational culture “has value in ensuring the continuing existence and success of organizations” (Kaarst-Brown et al., 2004, p. 44). In terms of libraries, the authors argue, not only can organizational culture attract the right staff and create public support, it also can help sustain funding by creating a positive evaluation by administrators and funders (2004, p. 33). One way to examine library culture is through the competing values framework (CVF). This method analyzes the central values of the organization and also allows for a comparison of the desired values and those already in place. The CVF proposes that organizations reflect on which cultural type they favor: clan, hierarchy, adhocracy or market (Kaarst-Brown et al., 2004, p. 38). Another way to determine an organization’s culture is to examine its core values. This will be discussed later.

Culture
Before we consider a library’s organizational culture we must first define what we mean by ‘culture.’ Edgar Schein posits that culture contains three levels: artifacts, values and behavioral norms, and beliefs and assumptions (Hatch, 1997, p. 210). The latter element is the deepest level of culture because these assumptions are the truth and as such it “penetrates every aspect of cultural life and colors all forms of experience that it touches” (Hatch, 1997, p. 210). So when examining and organization’s culture one might ask “What is their truth? What are the underlying assumptions that this organization operates under?” One might think that this is fairly obvious in the case of libraries; that they operate the assumption that they serve a valuable service to the community by providing reading materials, online access, community meeting space and other services. However, Schein notes that assumptions are so taken for granted that they are invisible. They are not obvious and easily decipherable to outsiders like artifacts. Schein lists six dimensions for understanding an organization’s basic cultural assumptions. These dimensions are: the organization’s relationship; and the nature of human activity, reality and truth, time, human nature, of humans; and homogeneity versus diversity. In each of these dimensions there are questions to be answered that reveal the organization’s underlying assumptions. Likewise, the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument has six key aspects: 1) dominant organizational characteristics, 2) leadership style, 3) management of employees, 4) organizational glue, 5) strategic emphasis, and 6) criteria for success (Kaarst-Brown et al., 2004, p. 39). These aspects and the CFV present a basis for revealing and understanding the culture in a particular library. This also allows one to determine if there is a conflict between the prevailing organizational culture and that of staff or the environment.

Understanding which of the for types of culture one’s library mirrors is helpful not only in working with the organization but also allows one to shift to a different cultural type more easily as a situation may dictate. Let me briefly define the four types of organizational culture as seen in libraries according to Kaarst-Brown et al.

This library emphasizes human development. High trust, openness, and
participation persist. (Clan-oriented)
This library emphasizes acquiring new resources and creating new challenges.
Trying new things and prospecting for opportunities are valued. (Adhocracy-
oriented)
This library emphasizes competitive actions and achievement. Hitting
stretch targets and winning points in our community are dominant. (Market-
oriented)
This library emphasizes permanence and stability. Efficiency, control,
and smooth operations are important. (Hierarchy-oriented). (2004, p. 40).

The authors note that no library only fits one type of culture but is usually a combination of one or more types. A library that has typically fit the hierarchy culture may begin to lose funding as patron usage decreases. To stay viable, the library may shift to a market-oriented culture and provide services that compete with other search engines and online services. Clearly, in a competitive market a library’s organizational culture is a strategic advantage to attracting employees and patrons alike. The type of culture a library has is not determined in a vacuum. Rather “the type of culture exhibited in these libraries depends upon the setting” (Kaarst-Brown et al., 2004, p. 47). Because the pressures on an academic library are different than that of a public library their cultures will be different to cope with these demands.

Culture and Strategy
Pasquale Gagliardi theorizes a relationship between culture and strategy that explains how culture affects change and change affects culture (Hatch, 1997, p. 359). Gagliardi builds on Schein’s concept of assumptions and posits that “every organization’s primary strategy is to protect the organizational identity that these assumptions and values create and maintain” (Hatch, 1997, p. 359). This is backed up by secondary strategies which seek to achieve goals and protect shared meanings. Gagliardi illustrates how a culture may completely shift when an organization is bought out and subject to incompatible values. However if the new values and assumptions are compatible with the old then the culture expands to encompass these new values in the new strategy. So examining the primary strategies and mythical knowledge (stories) of an organization is another way to understand its culture and strategies.

Core Values
One final way to unearth a library or other organization’s culture is to examine its core values. These are the “statements that make known to employees, customers and others the central beliefs and operation principles of an organization” (Patkus & Rapple, 2000 p. 197). Once core values are codified and made know they can serve as a motivator and guide for employees in behavior and goal achievement. Patkus and Rapple note the importance of these values not being static, but being lived out from CEO down. They state that it is “essential that all company activities revolve around [core values]” (Patkus & Rapple, 2000, p. 199). If a library has a visible statement of core values but does not act on them they lose credibility and the respect of patrons and funding bodies. If an organization does act on its core values, one can glean elements of the culture based on these statements. Core values can also attract potential employees and help build the image of the organization. If libraries or other organizations have a positive public image, usage will be steady and funding should follow. This illustrates another way that organizational culture is a strategic resource. A library’s culture is also a strategic resource in that in may drive exploration into new outreach programs and services. Certain cultures are more innovative than others, but by having a portion of the culture be market or adhocracy-oriented the library can ensure new ideas that will allow it to keep up with competition and maintain a valuable place in the community.

-Sarah Vandehey

References

Hatch, M. J. (1997). Organization theory: Modern, symbolic and postmodern
perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.

Kaarst-Brown, M. L., Nicholson, S., von Dran, G. M., & Stanton, J. M. (Summer 2004).
Organizational cultures of libraries as a strategic resource. Library Trends,
53(1), 33-53.

Patkus, R. & Rapple, B. A. (Fall 2000). Changing the culture of libraries: The role
of core values. Library Administration & Management, 14(4), 197-204.

Public Libraries: Crisis, Voice and Organization

Abstract: The external pressures libraries face as organizations in a rapidly changing social and technological environment demand corresponding structural changes within the organization to facilitate both adaptation and the provision of necessary services. The current response by a growing number of libraries has been to adopt the mainstreaming models of corporate bookstore chains, thereby undermining the mission of libraries to serve the public, especially the marginalized and underserved. Fortunately, organizational development trends emphasizing structural flexibility, employee autonomy and dynamic teamwork offer ways for libraries to respond to rapid change and improve services to all people in their communities.

Public libraries are in crisis. Dodge (2005) reports that the social and political environment is currently placing conflicting demands on public libraries: the public wants a wider range of services even as policymakers cut funding to critical levels. In response, a significant trend among public libraries has been to imitate the business practices of corporate bookstore chains, providing popular titles that cater to the tastes of affluent and middle class demographics; outsourcing “every chore from cataloging to book selection” (p. 75); and establishing fee structures and “pay-per-view models” (p. 76) for reference and computer access services. Also, the construction of “trophy libraries” in Seattle, Minneapolis, and elsewhere provide glitzy tourist destinations but favor impressive architecture over user access and functional utility (p. 74).

These strategies reflect the mimetic institutional pressures identified by DiMaggio and Powell that convince an organization’s leadership that the best response to conditions of rapid change and uncertainty is mimicking the practices and structures of organizations perceived as successful in such an environment (Hatch, 1997, p. 84). However, by adapting models developed in a for-profit marketplace, libraries risk compromising their public mission. Dodge contends that these policies neglect the information and social needs of underserved and marginalized communities, even as other policies (particularly those aimed at excluding the homeless) drive out segments of the public that need the library the most. “Too frequently, the trend toward standardization leads to similarly bland collections across the continent,” Dodge argues (p. 75); and selection procedures favor “works produced by the handful of giant conglomerates that own the big publishing houses and, in fact, dominate global media.” Dodge concludes:

The result: Books and items from other sources, especially local ones, get overlooked. They’re rendered invisible by the ways that materials are ordered and catalogued in the country’s ever more centralized, standardized library system” (p. 76).

New models offer hope. Concurrent with this trend toward mainstream standardization are two organizational development trends—Peter Senge’s learning organization model and the competing values framework (CVF) developed by R.E. Quinn and others—that promise to restructure the traditionally static hierarchy of the library towards models that emphasize flexibility, autonomy and communication among librarians, clerks and other paraprofessionals. Through such restructuring, the potential exists for libraries to better serve their traditional mission—to function as a “people’s university” as Dodge puts it (p. 73).

Giesecke and McNeil (2004) promote Senge’s model of the learning organization as a way for libraries to adapt to “the continuously changing information environment [by becoming] agile, flexible organizations” (p. 54), citing the implementation of this model at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln Libraries. Another experience from the academic world at the University of Arizona Library inspired the adaptation of the learning organization model to a public library system, Teton County Library in Jackson Hole, Wyoming (Bernfeld, 2004). Director Bernfeld strove to create “a nonhierarchical, circular team management structure…as well as a vision for leadership” (p. 112). The premise underlying these two adaptations of Senge’s model holds that the working culture of an organization depends on the structural relationships of its members, yet that restructuring must also arise from reevaluating the core values of the organization, redefining roles in terms of not command-and-control, but autonomy-and-responsibility. Kaarst-Brown et al. (2004) argue that, following the concepts of Schein, the culture of a long-established organization reinforces the structure that created it through assumptions of action so “implicitly embedded…that they are difficult, if not impossible, to articulate” (p.34) and too “extensive, costly and time-consuming” for most libraries to surface (p. 37). To overcome this obstacle, Kaarst-Brown et al. propose using the competing values framework (CVF) developed by Quinn (and others) to compare the central values of the organization already in place with values preferred in a “desired state” (p.38).

Structural and cultural change.Traditionally, public and academic libraries have been organized according to a mechanistic model, in which, according to Hatch (1997), specifically designed tasks and formal routines of differentiated professional and paraprofessional roles are coordinated (or “engineered”) by management (p. 76). Kaarst-Brown et al. (2004) acknowledge that this model is more prevalent in academic than in public libraries, as the former is beholden to the hierarchy of the supporting university or college, while the latter must adapt to the changing needs of its local communities, who tend to view the library as a public utility (pp. 45-46). As Hatch (1997) notes, “organizations always combine mechanistic and organic characteristics” (p. 77). Yet to meet the demands of a constantly changing environment, libraries can benefit from the key insight of contingency theory: organizations that adopt an organic model of greater flexibility, less hierarchy and more communication thrive in uncertain conditions (Hatch, pp. 77-78).

To make this transition, Henry Mintzberg proposes that the responsibilities for formulating and implementing strategies of adapting to a changing environment “where there is too much information to be comprehended in one brain” should be shared “on a collective basis” (Mintzberg, 1990, as cited in Hatch, 1997, p 116). “It’s just not possible any longer to ‘figure it out’ from the top, and have everyone else following the orders of the ‘grand strategist,’” argues Senge:

The organizations that will truly excel in the future will be the organizations that discover how to tap people’s commitment and capacity to learn at all levels in an organization. (Hatch, p. 369)

By redefining the roles of organization members in ways that combine both analytical and procedural tasks as shared responsibilities, this “collapse” of formulator and implementer structurally enacts a cultural renaissance within the organization. However, this is not to imply that structure precedes culture; nor would the opposite case be any more accurate. In both the learning organization and CVF models, restructuring and cultural change occur dialectically and, at times, simultaneously.

Senge’s learning organization. According to Giesecke and McNeil (2004), a learning organization “is an organization skilled at creating, acquiring, and transferring knowledge and at modifying its behavior to reflect new knowledge and insights” (p. 55). Alongside learning and knowledge, behavior modification is a key feature: “Learning organizations translate new knowledge into new ways of behaving” (p.55). The learning organization emphasizes creativity and work-related learning; flexibility in receiving new ideas and adopting new procedures; and communication of opinions, information and new ideas among all levels of the organization. Importantly, the style of learning is future oriented and collectively acquired, what Giesecke and McNeil term “anticipatory learning” (p. 56), “a joint venture in which individuals in a unit, department, or the organization as a whole explore alternatives, share ideas, and consider how new knowledge helps the organization reach its goals” (p. 56). This style of learning poses an important challenge to the traditionally punitive response to individual error and failure by fostering an environment in which risk-taking—i.e., daring to make mistakes—is encouraged, errors and problems are viewed “as information” to influence planning, and openness and trust are grounded.

At the heart of Senge’s learning organization are five principles, or “disciplines” that Senge believes participants in an organization must practice to effectively become a learning organization: shared vision, personal mastery, mental models, group learning, and systems thinking. In each of these disciplines, members of the organization develop a personal understanding of the organizational culture, the organization’s mission, and their responsibilities in contributing to how the organization learns, grows and changes. Systems thinking, the “fifth discipline,” integrates these personal visions into an interactive whole, a system of complex and dynamic forces.

Giesecke and McNeil (2004) recommend several steps for organizations to adapt the learning organization model and report success at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln Libraries: a Gallup Corporation survey of the UN-L campus found the Libraries rated higher than most academic departments in achieving the learning objectives of Senge’s model (p. 65). A similar experience at the University of Arizona Library inspired Bernfeld (2004) to transform the Teton County Library in Jackson Hole, Wyoming into a learning organization. Necessitated by budget cuts, expansion of services and a growing user population, this transformation had a profoundly positive impact on staff morale and creativity in designing programs that increased funding, improved user services and met technological challenges. It also radically transformed the organization’s structure, dispensing with the traditional pyramid hierarchy in favor of a circular team structure that encouraged leadership from not only Bernfeld as director but also from the rest of the staff. As the diagram below suggests, the restructuring reflected and encouraged a profound change in organizational culture.



Culture as strategic resource. Much as Senge’s mental model discipline encourages members to question their personal underlying assumptions of the organization, Kaarst-Brown et al. recommend, following Schein (as indicated above), examining the core values of the organization’s culture. However, Kaarst-Brown et al. (2004) warn against viewing libraries “through a stereotypical lens that might suggest the idea of a single, dominant, or strong culture…” (p. 36). Following Joanne Martin (and others), they suggest that different types of libraries comprise differentiated or fragmented subcultures that provide multiple perspectives that can help revitalize the dominant structure. In other words, within any organization, there are diverse, variant and sometimes competing models that arise from the activities and interactions within organizational subcultures. These perspectives can be voiced through implementation of the competing values framework (CVF), as an organization promotes discussion of its underlying assumptions and values and seeks to realize those that it prefers.

According to Kaarst-Brown et al., the CVF identifies four types of organizational culture: clan, hierarchy, adhocracy and market. These types vary in effectiveness relative to both their environment and to their internal structure. Again, contingency theory makes its case: “This means some organizations are effective when they are changing, adaptable, and organic, while others are effective when they are stable, predictable, and mechanistic” (p. 38). As the diagram below indicates, clan and adhocracy structures emphasize flexibility and individual discretion among organization members, yet differ in orientation: a clan culture is internally directed, fostering a nurturing, participatory environment, while an adhocracy culture seeks risks, innovation and inspiration from competition with the external environment. Meanwhile, both market and hierarchy cultures favor stability and control, but differ in orientation: market cultures favor the pragmatic while hierarchy cultures emphasize rules and structure.



Kaarst-Brown et al. (2004) warn that these cultural types do not exist in “pure form” (p. 40) but coexist in one organization as subcultures with overlapping and competing values. The value of CVF lies in its ability to expose these cultures within an organization and give them voice in contributing to the direction of the organization. Marginalized voices within an organization often reflect similar problems of marginalization in the larger social environment the organization inhabits (Martin, as cited in Hatch, 1997, p. 230). For public libraries, a greater diversity of voices within the organization (not to mention the profession at large) would go a long way toward providing improved service and access to underserved segments of the user population. As Kaarst-Brown et al. observe:

The library’s success is measured by the patrons who are touched by their services. Therefore, a successful library is one that is integrated into the community and is seen as an essential component of the services offered to citizens. (p. 46)

In balancing flexibility and stability, successful public libraries, according to Kaarst-Brown et al., emulate a clan culture and incorporate :some undertones of adhocracy through empowered committees” (p.46).

Kevin M.

References

Bernfeld, B.A. (2004). Developing a team management structure in a public library. Library Trends 53(1), 112-128.

Dodge, C. (July-August 2005). Knowledge for sale: are America’s public libraries on the verge of losing their way? Utne Magazine, 73-77. Retrieved June 24, 2005 at http://www.utne.com/magazine/newsstand/utne130_knowledge-for-sale.pdf.

Giesecke, J. and McNeil, B. (2004). Transitioning to the learning organization. Library Trends 53(1), 54-67.

Hatch, M.J. (1997). Organization theory: modern, symbolic and postmodern perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.

Kaarst-Brown, M.L., Nicholson, S., von Dran, G.M., and Stanton, J.M. (2004). Organizational cultures of libraries as a strategic resource. Library Trends 53(1), 33-53.

NASA and Organizational Culture

Last week, NPR carried a piece on the organizational culture of NASA. The piece aired just after NASA had to postpone the shuttle Discovery’s mission, which was to be the first space shuttle launch since the Columbia explosion in 2003. After the loss of the Columbia, NASA hired the consultant firm Behavioral Science Technology (BST) to assess the culture of the organization. BST was recruited after the Columbia Accident Investigation Board (CAIB) found that “NASA’s history and culture contributed as much to the Columbia accident as any technical failure.” (nasa.gov) BST surveyed NASA employees and coached managers in the organization during their time with NASA. But partway through the study, BST was essentially fired by NASA officials who said they could carry on with the work internally.

NASA as an Organization

Like many American kids, I’ve always been interested in NASA. I can remember where I was when both the Challenger and Columbia exploded. Recently, I’ve heard about funding issues and whether or not NASA should continue exploring the far reaches of space.

Because it is a government organization, I think NASA would be considered a bureaucracy, defined by Mary Jo Hatch (1997) as “formal authority based on precise and generalized rules and procedures.” It must also have characteristics of mechanistic organizations because the work done there is highly technical with engineers working diligently in their areas of assigned responsibility. At the same time, the creativity displayed by those looking to build machines that will explore places nowhere has been is inherent is organic organizations. As Hatch (1997) states, “organizations always combine mechanistic and organic characteristics” and NASA fits this profile.

NASA was challenged with transforming itself after the Columbia tragedy. From my observations, the politics of the organization made transformation difficult. It seems that the organization used the trial-and-error decision-making model. People at NASA agreed on the goal, making space flight safer, but did not have a clear plan in place to make that happen.

As in most organizations, power lies with those at the top of the managerial structure. The goal of bringing in BST was to improve the organization’s culture, but those at the top decided not to continue working with the consultant company. A year later, lower-level employees say the culture of NASA has not changed. (NPR, 2005)

The Challenge of Changing Culture

Thomas Krause, who runs BST, has this to say about organizational culture. “The things that are obvious aren’t done. It’s one thing to say something is obvious. It’s another thing to get an organization of 19,000 people to do that day-to-day.” (NPR, 2005)

NASA Director Sean O’Keefe says culture “can’t be assessed in any way unless you have a metric and measurement to do so.” (NPR, 2005) BST measure culture at NASA with a series of surveys and was in the process of making recommendations for change when it was let go. It’s said that this was the decision of the new director, Michael Griffin who “doesn’t think culture change is something you can graph.” He also said, “I don’t know because I don’t know how to measure cultural change. Culture something you feel.” (NPR, 2005)

I think the very act of dropping BST shows that NASA executives don’t understand organization theory. And it’s not likely that they have the training or theory background to effectively evaluate the culture of the organization. Director Griffin says improving culture can be don by “working on things that are taught in kindergarten” such as listening to people and paying attention to other peoples’ opinions. (NPR, 2005) It’s disturbing that Director Griffin seems to take no regard for the theory of organizational culture, especially when it’s been pointed out that culture of NASA was in part responsible for taking the lives of seven astronauts.

It can be a challenge for those trying to measure and study organizations if those they are trying to help disregard their work. Those without the proper background may see the field as being too “touchy-feely” or too abstract.

Conclusion

NASA can be used as an example for libraries and other information organizations in that it serves as a reminder to be open-minded about change and new ideas. Libraries may not have the lives of astronauts on their hands, but they do have the minds of the public to attend to and that may be even more important.

Adrienne Wilson

References:

Hatch, M.J. (1997). Organization theory: Modern, symbolic, and postmodern perspectives. New
York: Oxford University Press.

NPR (2005). The culture of NASA as shuttle flights begin anew. Retrieved July 16, 2005 from http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4756353.

NASA (2004). Assessment and plan for organizational culture change at NASA. Retrieved July 19, 2005 from http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/57382main_culture_web.pdf.

Seattle Public LIbrary and Tupac

Introduction:

For Summer 2005, Seattle Public Library added to its book discussion groups a unique forum. Inspired by the interest and demand at the University of Washington for its course The Textual Appeal of Tupac Shakur, which addressed books the rapper had admired and social realities, the library adopted the readings for a book discussion group. The rap star died eight years ago and leaves behind a fanbase that continues to grow. The success of this program is an example of the practice of several organization theories covered in Mary Jo Hatch’s text Organization Theory: Modern, Symbolic, and Postmodern Perspectives.

I Get Around at the University of Washington and Seattle Public Library

Georgia Roberts is a graduate student in the English Department at the University of Washington. She created the course on Tupac after realizing that in nearly every aspect of her coursework, she would find some relevance to the rapper. It had become a joke to her and her colleagues until she realized that Tupac could be a useful learning model because of his interests in politics, religion, and cultural theory. Roberts developed the course after being approached by the Comparative History of Ideas Program at U of W. Not only did the 400 level course bring together his fans at the school, but also students of business, biology, and religious studies. “We studied Tupac’s ideas alongside Nietzsche, Frantz Fanon, and other writers and philosophers and looked for connections. The students challenged each other’s assumptions about categories like race, class, and gender” (Texts and Tupac). The course quickly developed a waiting list and has been offered for the Summer 2005 quarter. Seattle Public Library saw the curiosity for the program and approached Roberts to lead a discussion group..

Seattle Library is not Strugglin’ for patrons

Hatch discusses in her book how population ecology theory permits an organization to develop focusing on the environments perceived interests and needs. This theory reinforces the necessity for user-centeredness when creating programs so that the patron feels welcome and accommodated. Successful organizations evolve throughout time to consistently oblige customers, in this case patrons, and validate its usefulness.

In addition to population ecology, one may see how postmodern organization theory applies to this program. Hatch states: “One postmodernist idea for redressing the imbalance [of power] is to give voice to silence. This means seeking greater levels of participation by marginalized members of organizations such as women, racial and ethnic minorities, and the oldest and youngest employees” (46). One may substitute the word patron for employee in this statement. This program may have sought to empower the “disempowered” by introducing literary works which had inspired Tupac.

By combining the defining elements of these theories, one may see the program’s success may be attributed to the following:

Patrons saw the program as legitimate. Participants included teachers, parents of teenagers, and fans. The varied audience represented members from inside hip hop culture, as well as those who were interested in learning more about it.
Advertising for the discussion group was widespread. Roberts’ course at the University of Washington received so much attention after a student took the initiative to post the syllabus online, that the library was able to take advantage of it as well. The poster for the program featured graffiti style artwork and Tupac’s portrait making it easily recognizable.
The reading list is composed of significant works, including: I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou, The Art of War by Sun Tzu, and The Prince by Machiavelli. Without the unifying theme of Tupac (or Roberts, for that matter), I am not sure that the program would have been successful.


Holla if You Hear Me at Seattle Public Library

It is clear that Seattle Public Library has so far been successful in making this program a flourishing one. It has been legitimately accepted by Tupac’s fans and has had media attention and praise. How can this be a positive example for our prospective libraries? I am motivated, personally, to bring my unique perspective so that I may be a positive example in encouraging patron participation.

When asked what she thought Tupac would think about the discussion group at Seattle Public Library, Roberts replied “[Tupac] says, ‘I don’t think I’ll change the world, but I guarantee that I’ll spark the brain that will change the world.’ As someone who studies literature, I’ve always believed in the transformative power of reading to spark and ignite social change. So if people are encouraged to read by his example, well, I think he’d see that as a cool thing” (Texts and Tupac).

Sara P.


Hatch, M.J. (1997). Organization Theory: Modern, Symbolic and Postmodern Perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.

Texts and Tupac. (Winter-Spring 2005.) A&S Perspectives Newsletter. Retrieved July 15, 2005 from http://www.artsci.washington.edu/newsletter/WinterSpring05/Tupac.htm

The Seattle Public Library: Library News Release Detail. Retrieved July 15, 2005 from
http://www.spl.org/default.asp?pageID=about_news_detail&cid=1119551293007

Working for a Learning Organization

When I was hired as a clerk at the Multnomah County Library, much was made of MCL being a "learning organization". There were a number of classes a new employee was supposed to take within the first 6 months of their tenure. We were also encouraged to share our ideas with the "team developers" or others in management, and to consider attending conferences or other outside learning opportunities.

MCL is very interested in peers training peers. I have been a member of the Clerk Training Team for 3 years. We train new clerks and give circulation training to reference staff so they can work on-call as clerk, or help on the circulation desk at their home locations. The team developed the curriculum, which we have continued to update and expand. We are also part of the team currently developing and teaching classes on the new integrated library system that is going live in September. This has been invaluable work experience, improving my confidence and involvement, and helping me to develop new skills.

The following is taken directly from the MCL mission statement, on the public website:


VI. PROFESSIONALISM AND EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT WITH RESPECT FOR THE WORTH
AND ABILITY OF EACH EMPLOYEE

In our commitment to provide a high standard of public service:

We will provide clear written and oral expectations of job requirements.
We will provide staff with the tools necessary to do the best job possible, including equipment, training and information.
We will promote staff development through workshops, seminars and/or job-related courses.
We will provide timely performance appraisals in conjunction with on-going informal dialogue between employee and supervisor.
We will ensure meaningful recognition and acknowledgment for job performance.
We will establish and maintain open lines of communication at all levels.
We will ensure that personnel are selected according to library standards.
We will allow clearly defined time for input into decision-making.

So, what is a learning organization, and does MCL actually qualify for the title? According to a definition I found by Richard Karesh at http://world.std.com/~lo/, "a Learning Organization is one in which people at all levels, individually and collectively, are continually increasing their capacity to produce results they really care about." I am very proud to say that, at MCL, many people care deeply about the service we provide to the public, and are very concerned about continually improving that service, especially in the face of the budget crunches we've had over the past few years.

Peter Senge, management consultant and author of The Fifth Dimension, believes that the learning organization is an important future trend in organizations. "The organizations that will truly excel in the future will be the organizations that discover how to tap people's commitment and capacity to learn at all levels in an organization." (Senge 1990, as quoted in Hatch 1997) One of the things I appreciate about MCL is that you have the opportunities to take classes and learn more about our organization no matter what your job classification is. For example, everyone is encouraged to take the class on Intellectual Freedom, not just librarians.

On another web site about learning organizations, I found the following bullet points:

"Learning organizations:

Provide continuous learning opportunities.

Use learning to reach their goals.

Link individual performance with organizational performance." (Kerka 1995, as cited by Smith 2001)

Multnomah County Library definitely provides continuous learning opportunities, as I've already detailed above. As for the next two points, MCL requires every employee to have an Individual Performance Plan and a yearly performance review. In your "IPP", you choose several goals that you would like to achieve in the coming year. Often, these are related to exploring some aspect of your job more in-depth. We are encouraged to look at the library's Five Year Plan, and see how we can contribute to the goals outlined therein in our own Plan. This often involves learning something new, and our performance review the next year examines how well we met our goals, and how those goals enhanced the system-wide goals of the library.

While I haven't heard as much talk about Multnomah County Library as a learning organization since our budget crisis started a few years ago, and they don’t offer classes quite as often as they used to, I still believe that we are a learning organization. Whether it is the opportunity to take a class, attend a conference, help with a special project, or join a committee, each employee is encouraged to take part in making our library a better place to work, and a better library for our patrons. – Shandra Bauer

For more information, visit the following websites:

http://home.nycap.rr.com/klarsen/learnorg/

http://world.std.com/~lo/

http://www.infed.org/thinkers/senge.htm


References:

Hatch, M. J. (1997). Organization Theory. Oxford University Press

Smith, M. K. (2001) 'The learning organization', the encyclopedia of informal education, http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-organization.htm

(and the web sites mentioned above)

Organization Theory PDX

Organization Theory PDX

Risk-taking and Innovation

With my strong leaning towards creativity and entrepreneurial interests, I have been concentrating on developing my own leadership skills and learning how to encourage innovation and creativity in others. I read two interesting articles which focused on the particular issues of risk-taking and risk-aversion, which impact creativity. One article supported the idea that risk-taking is a core element of an organization’s culture and can be cultivated to gradually become more accepted in that culture (McCormick, 2004). The other article suggested that, although individual traits and culture play a role, adaptive processes that aim to reproduce successes (such as experiential learning and competitive selection) naturally result in a bias against risk-taking and novel approaches (Denrell & March, 2001).

Hatch points out that we should not try to manage culture because culture consists of “other people’s meanings and interpretations” and is thus unmanageable. Good leadership however, can, as she states, “carry out organizational change” with consideration of organizational culture (p. 235). I believe this can lead to positive changes in organizational culture.

McCormick advocates rewarding failure in order to encourage risk-taking. He says, “If you want to increase initiative and innovation, you have to encourage and embrace failure. A culture that punishes less-than-ideal risk-related outcomes will stifle both initiative and innovation. (2004)” In his proprietary research, he found that his risk-avoiding respondents were seeking permission to take risks and also assurance that their careers would not be adversely affected by less-than-ideal outcomes. He suggested the following action steps:
•Communicate the risk profile you desire and why it is important to the organization.
• Never let an unsuccessful risk hamper a team member’s opportunities or advancement.
• Establish an award program for BOTH risks that pay off and also well-considered risks that do not (announced simultaneously and rewarded identically).
• Establish a formal process for gleaning lessons from unsuccessful risks.
• Provide situation-specific risk-assessment tools for better decision making. (McCormick, 2004)

In my own experience, I have observed that in organizational cultures that value innovation and are more accepting of less-than-perfect outcomes, there is a general tendency toward more novel approaches to problems. I have also observed that I am more comfortable in such organizations because I have more freedom to express my creative/innovative side and lead others to do the same.

I have also observed, as Denrell and March did, that organizations (especially for-profit businesses) and their members modify their actions based on their successes. Likewise, they are reluctant to risk decreasing those successes without significant incentive. Since novel approaches usually take time and practice to be successful, they are often discarded before they have time to be proven.

I do not yet work in a library, but I believe a culture of risk-taking could benefit the public library by encouraging efficiency, superior customer service and cutting-edge ideas.

Have you observed risk-avoidance/risk-taking tendencies in your organizations? Do you feel you need additional support and encouragement to risk innovations?

~Su I.

References:

Denrell, J. & March, J. 2001. Adaptation as information restriction: the hot stove effect. Organization Science 12(5) 523-538.

Hatch, M.J. 1997. Organization Theory: Modern Symbolic and Postmodern Perspectives. Oxford University Press.

McCormick, J. 2004. Seeking initiative and innovation? Reward failure! Accessed July 18, 2005 at http://www.leader-values.com/Content/detail.asp?ContentDetailID=237.

Transforming into a Post-modern Organization

If libraries want to learn how to survive in a changing environment, they should look at modern organizations that transform into post-modern organizations. One such organization is Tyco International. Due to a scandal involving their top executives, the company needed to change in order to regain the trust and faith of its employees and investors. Their solution was to transform from a modern organization that concentrated authority in the hands of management into a post-modern organization that diffuses authority by increasing the number of stake holders whose voices are heard during the decision making process (Hatch, 1997, p.50).

Tyco as a Modern Organization

Before 2002, Tyco International was a modern organization with a highly formalized and centralized hierarchy. At top of Tyco’s hierarchy, the Board of Directors, were concerned primarily with their fiduciary responsibilities, of ensuring that the company earned a profit and were not overly concerned with how that profit was achieved. That was left up to the Chief Executive Officer (CEO), Dennis Kozlowski, and Chief Financial Officer (CFO), Mark Swartz. Kozlowski controlled information to the Board of Directors, elected by the shareholders, of common operations and implemented any decisions of the board based on his assessment. The board was content to accept the recommendations as long as profits were upward.

Under Kozlowski’s strict management, Tyco was an acquisition machine, preferring to buy new businesses rather than closely managing an old one (Deutsch, 2004). According to Hatch, conglomerates were formed mainly for investment opportunities rather than concern for market advantages or technical economies (1997, p. 185-6). Tyco’s upper management, in particular Mark Swartz, were “given incentives to make acquisitions that immediately added to earnings” rather than focusing on innovation or operations (Deutsch, 2004). The larger Tyco became through acquisitions, the more powerful Kozlowski and the company became.

The Post-modern Transformation

When the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) filed fraud charges against Dennis Kozlowski, in the spring of 2002, Tyco’s Board of Directors fired him and hired Edward Breen as the new CEO, in an attempt to save the company from bankruptcy. As new CEO Breen’s goal, for the post-scandal Tyco, was to restore trust and faith in the organization for its investors and especially his employees.

To do this, Breen needed to transform the organization from a modern orientation that concentrated authority in the hands of top management into a post-modern orientation where authority diffused by increasing the number of stakeholders whose voices are heard during the decision making process (Hatch, 1997, p.50). A post-modern organization is compared to a collage, where management values the bits of knowledge and understanding from multiple perspectives to create a decentralized hierarchy with vertical and lateral communication.

For the post-modern transformation, Breen needed to reestablish trust in the company by replacing the entire Board of Directors and 90% of the upper-level managers, including CFO Mark Swartz (Deutsch, 2004). He stated, in the New York Times article, that it was too chancy to leave them, the top executives, in power in case there were more involved in the scandal then those who were named by the SEC. (Deutsch, 2004). He also created new reporting hierarchies, placed the ethics policies in the employee manuals, hired new executives and nominated new independent directors for the Board.

Breen cut costs by merging four of Tyco’s divisions, which used to have separate offices, into one building; moving the headquarters, from its lavish Manhattan quarters, to an office park in Princeton; and jointly procuring goods and services for its five divisions saving the company millions of dollars.

In a major move from traditional board responsibilities, Mr. Breen encouraged Jack Krol, the lead director of the board, to create an open access Board of Directors. Instead of the CEO being the only source of information for the Board of Directors, Tyco’s open access board meets with the upper and mid-level managers. The board also regularly visits the business units and meets with employees, generally without the CEO or other senior management nearby.

Tyco's Lessons for Libraries

How does Tyco’s transformation help libraries survive in a changing environment? Tyco’s management thought outside the box, by redefining the roles and communication channels of the board of directors, management and employees. By encouraging vertical and lateral communication among all levels of management, the company was able to consider multiple perspectives and innovations that helped the company restore trust and pride within its environment.

If library directors were to utilize the multiple perspectives of their board members and employees, the result would be new innovative ideas on how to reestablish the importance of libraries within a community. In addition, the library employees would feel more respect and pride for the library because their opinion is taken into consideration when it comes to the decision making process.

Malia Laughton

References:

Deutsch, C. (2004, March 22). As its ex-bosses await their fate, Tyco continues comeback. The New York Times, p. C1. Retrieved July 14, 2005 from Custom Newspapers Database.

Hatch, M. J. (1997). Organization theory: Modern, symbolic, and postmodern perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.

Round Pegs in Square Holes

Introduction

Although this assignment suggested that the focus should be on library managers using organization theory, this particular paper takes the position that employees and potential employees benefit from an understanding of what kind of an organization they work for or are thinking of working for. Knowing, for example, if the organization tends to be industrial or post-modern, mechanistic or organic better helps the employee understand how things are done.
Also recognizing the part that politics and power play in an organization as well as how decisions are made, gives employees an advantage in pursuing their own career goals and contributions they desire to make to the library and community.

Tales from the Stacks

Lynn was already a clerk at the library where I had recently taken a job as a clerk. Part of my new position included working at the circulation desk as well as the reference desk. I considered it a good opportunity to improve my library skills. After being there for several months, I learned that Lynn had been asked to work at the reference desk before I was hired but had refused. His reasoning was that the other person who worked there was a librarian, and Lynn would not work at the reference desk unless he was paid as a librarian as well. After all, he had a PHD. For that kind of work, he should get paid more than a clerk.
Over the next 6 years, I had many opportunities to learn different library skills as "just a clerk." Eventually I was hired as the Young Adult Librarian. Lynn continued doing the same clerical job, not willing to do anything more that what he was doing unless there was a raise and promotion involved. When the position of branch manager came open, Lynn and I both applied for the position. I got the job.
Judy came into the library one day and struck up a conversation with me. She was a woman in her 50's and had recently completed a degree in library science and wanted a job as a librarian. At that time I was still the young adult librarian. She did not want a job as "just a library clerk." Knowing how things were run at the library, I tried to explain that she would probably have to start as a clerk. In the five or six years I had been there, the only outside hiring ever done was for a library clerk. Better positions were always hired in house. She eventually, and reluctantly, accepted a position as a clerk, but only lasted a few months before she quit.
Teri was in the same position, MLS degree, but little library experience. When a position as a clerk opened, she asked me if I though she should apply or if she should wait until a professional position opened. I explained the same thing to her. She accepted a position as a clerk, worked at that for about a year and a half and then was hired as the cataloger at the new branch when it opened. The fact that she had an MLS definitely gave her an advantage although it was not required. As usual, the position had only been advertised in house. If she had not already been working there, she never would have gotten the job as cataloger.
In view of the many emails we all recently received about MLS graduates taking para-professional positions, these examples are relevant. An MLS degree is not a golden ticket that automatically guarantees employment of any kind, as Judy perhaps hoped. It would not be surprising to find out that many MLS graduates start out in para-professional jobs. Each library has its own way of doing things, whether we think it is fair or not. By having learned different aspects of organizational theory, we will better know how to work within the situation. There are so many variables that employers consider, and each employer has different preferences. In many cases, employers do not care what your credentials are, if you are uncooperative or hard to get along with, they do not want you. It is generally easier to train an inexperienced person with a good attitude and work ethic than it is to change an experienced or educated person with a bad attitude and a lousy work ethic.
It could also be suggested that this particular library worked more like the old craft organizations that Hatch describes on page 317, people learn basic library skills and then learn more advanced skills and move up in the organization. Other libraries perhaps are more deskilled, as Harry Braverman calls it, where workers stay workers, managers stay managers, etc. and people within the organization do not move up. In that kind of a library it would be difficult to move from a para-professional position to a professional position, unless one had a master's degree.
The other advantage of having all those para-professional positions is that in the supervisory roll I play now, I KNOW what their job is. Graduate School has been hugely helpful because it has reaffirmed much of what I picked up on the job, and given me a more complete perspective on library work. But the experience I have had working in libraries is also valuable.
In terms of organizational theory, it seems that Lynn had a mechanistic mind set, but he worked in an organic library and he did not know it, or could not accept it. How different his career might have been if he had just understood all the different ways an organization can be set up. Perhaps he would have realized the paradigm misfit and shifted his attitude.
Judy felt so over-qualified that the day to day tasks of being a clerk were unrewarding. She wanted to do librarian work. I have often wondered if prestige was very important to her. Terri, on the other hand was willing to jump in where ever and let her position evolve. Right or wrong, that is what worked in this particular library.
In "Organization Theory" (1997), Hatch discusses power and politics (chapter 9). She brings out the point that within organizations "The political process involves individuals uniting their interests and proposing alternatives that are collectively beneficial to themselves." (p.277). The advantage of politics became apparent to me soon after I started working at that library. I knew who to form alliances with, who to get along with. That might sound superficial and phony, but when you consider that my career anchor is security, it takes on a different meaning. At least I hope so. I am really not that devious or selfish, I was just trying to secure my position as much as possible. I am not a very opinionated person and I can usually make any combination of circumstances work.

Conclusion

Throughout life we all pick up attitudes and beliefs about everything. If what we expect is not true in a situation, we might not recognize that the rules have changed. As an employee it is very beneficial to understand what kind of organization one works for and know that not all organizations are set up the same.
As an employer, it is helpful to know that employees might come into the organization with preconceived ideas about what the organization is like and be incorrect. Expecting this kind of misconception and being prepared for it will help prevent problems that come up with incorrect expectations. Organizational theory helps the individual recognize how the institution is set up and that there can be many variations.

Bibliography
Hatch, M.J. (1997). Organization Theory: Modern Symbolic and Postmodern
Perspectives. Oxford University Press.

Sally Beesley

Build it and they will come…
Build it right and they will come back

Theory relating to the physical elements of an organization is helping to transform public libraries from book warehouses into community centers for the information age. In M. J. Hatch’s Organization Theory: Modern, Symbolic and Postmodern, Chapter 8 focuses on the physical structure of organizations. She defines three areas of physical structure: the geography, the layout, and the design and décor (1997). Geography is defined as where the organization is located and may include multiple locations. The layout refers to the building and how objects and activities are arranged. The design and décor not only includes the architectural style of the building but also the signs, employees, their belongings and anything else that affects the appearance of the organization. Not only does physical structure affect the people who are part of the organization, but it also can provide clues to an organization’s culture, social structure, and technology. Studying the physical structure of new public libraries is an important step to understanding how libraries are evolving in the 21^st century.

With public funds disappearing and threat of library closures around the United States, the future of public libraries seems grim in an age of rapidly changing technology. The stereotype of intimidating quiet institutions designed around books not people is rapidly being reexamined. Libraries instead are changing into vibrant user-based community centers with Post-modern “green” architecture and cutting-edge technology. Librarians are taking cues from retail and other for profit industries to make “customer satisfaction” their focus. The future is looking bright.

It is not just for books any more

Shrinking budgets and rapidly changing technology creates a difficult combination for libraries. With public library users increasingly turning to the Internet for their information needs, libraries are becoming more creative in providing services to stay relevant and to survive. Finding room for added computers can be difficult and expensive. Adding more computers is not the only concern. Computer technology is rapidly replaced with newer versions. Budget constraints limit libraries from providing endless technological upgrades. Libraries are keeping an eye on the future by seeking out flexible, expandable solutions.

Wireless Internet access provides flexibility and accommodates expansion and change. The layout of library computer labs is changing from large centralized labs to “a more widely distributed configuration of computing resources.” A library may budget for a certain number of computers but accommodate many more users with wireless access. “Wireless also allows a room to house a preschool program in the morning, then a technology club after school, with kids using laptops with wireless access.” (Kenney, 2003).

In Salt Lake City's new central library, a special type of “all access flooring” was installed. There is a panel every sixteen inches which allows wiring to be pulled up. The high price tag on this special flooring is worth it, since it allows for easy expansion and future reorganization in the library (Kenney, 2003). The Cerritos public library, CA, has comfortable chairs “wired for laptops” (Williams, 2002). In the Darien library, CT, the lower level will be home to a small office set-up including printers, scanners, copiers, and computers with a variety of peripherals like digital cameras. (Kenney & Martin, 2004).

Radio Frequency ID or RFID technology is also having a huge impact on the physical structure of libraries. Some branches are eliminating the circulation desk in favor of “self-check” , “self-return” and in Clinton-Malcomb Public Library, MI, “an automated sortation system that brings material right to the book truck for shelving.” RFID allows librarians the freedom to concentrate on the more meaningful parts of their jobs. (Kenney & Martin, 2004).

The Cerritos Public Library has added décor and design in the children’s area to stimulate learning and interaction. The children's area includes “a 40-foot-long authentic replica of a Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton, as well as a light-house, a rain forest, and a space shuttle. A constantly changing sky dome displays weather phenomena during the day and constellations by night. And the entrance is framed by giant books through "green screen" technology that allows young visitors to join fictional characters on the pages of their favorite stories.” (Williams, 2002)

The customer is always right

Public libraries need to increase users to justify their budget requests to not only board members but to the tax-paying voters. Showing an increase in number of users can even help increase funding. Librarians are shifting their focus to their users (and potential users) and creating new, enticing environments in their libraries. Many libraries are turning to retail for ideas on attracting and keeping customers. Looming book stacks are being replaced by shelves that are typically three shelves tall. The lower height is more accessible to users and allows librarians to use the space on top to create attractive displays. (Kenney, 2003). Many libraries are creating displays of staff recommendations, or popular books and videos much like a book or video store would do. (Demas & Scherer, 2002). Quite often the location of library branches is chosen for its close proximity to other retail service, so users can conveniently visit the library while out shopping or picking up the dry cleaning.

Creativity in changing the look of new public libraries is boundless. As Barbara Pym wrote: “I do not approve of this hushed and reverent attitude towards our great library. After all, it is a place for human beings, isn’t it?”( Bundy, 2004). Libraries are changing their users’ ideas of what to expect. Cafes, wine bars and spaces for teens to listen to live music are being added. Some libraries are creating “living rooms” where books are grouped by theme next to comfortable chairs for browsing. (Emberton & Stanley, 2005).

The new central branch of the Seattle public library has a continuous spiral ramp where the stacks wind around in Dewey decimal order. The ramp provides access to everyone without stairs or elevators. The library in Cerritos, CA has a 15,000-gallon saltwater aquarium, ten feet high and twenty-three feet long, in the entry way (Williams, 2002). Innovative architecture and design is not only attracting new users but keeping them.

The layout is also changing because circulation and reference desks are disappearing. At the new Cerritos Public Library, librarians walk the floor with headsets and Personal Digital Assistants actively helping users find the information they need (Williams, 2002). At the Darien library, CT, the new layout will eliminate the “physical and psychological barrier” between the user and the librarian by creating reference interview “pods” for comfortable one-on-one stations. Reference staff will be equipped with Vocera wireless communicators to seek assistance from colleagues (Kenney & Martin, 2004).

No matter how drastic changes in the physical structure of libraries seems, these are thouroughly discussed decisions and not the whim of the latest trend. Libraries have not discarded their history for a new beginning. Many library users still want something rarely found in public, a quiet space. Libraries are still setting aside rooms just for reading. Even going so far as to have “technology free” rooms where computers are forbidden. Libraries are trying to balance the needs of all their users by providing a variety of services in various settings. (Demas & Scherer, 2002).

From Warehouse to Community Hub

Closely related to user-oriented service is the desire to keep libraries as community centers. With the understanding that people like to learn and explore with their peers, libraries are designing lively places to serve the community. As new buildings or renovations are being planned, libraries are involving local citizens in the process through public meetings, voting, and surveys. Librarians need to know what their community wants in order to serve it well.

Libraries are increasingly providing space for meetings, lectures, book clubs, and other events. Instead of a plain room with moveable chairs and tables, elegant auditoriums and state of the art media centers are being created (Emberton & Stanley, 2005; Kenney & Martin, 2004; Williams, 2002). “The age of the highly individualized, use-specific space is giving way, for reasons of efficiency and economics, to multi-use spaces” (Demas & Scherer, 2002).

Libraries are also adding more cultural events like films, concerts, author readings and even museums. Not only do libraries provide information about the community and local events, but they present recreational and educational events which cater to the community. Public libraries are joining with university libraries, local schools, senior centers and even city hall to create full-service cultural hubs. (Demas & Scherer., 2002) Brooklyn Public Library has plans to build the first Visual and Performing Arts Library which will have a circulating book collection but also art galleries, studios, a theater, a 24/7 media lounge, a high-tech auditorium, and a cafe (Kenney, 2003).

Going “green” saves “green”

Sustainable or green architecture started from a desire to lessen the negative effects of buildings on the environment. For librarians, concerned with shrinking budgets, the view has shifted focus from saving our environment for the future to saving money now. Green buildings are more cost effective than conventional construction. By incorporating more windows to make use of natural light, energy bills are reduced and natural resources are saved.

By adding natural landscaping, the view through the windows adds life to the library. The new Seattle Public Library in downtown collects the rainwater that runs off the building for irrigation. Natural ventilation systems reduce the need for machinery and improve air quality. But that economic drive creates other beneficial side effects. In general, green buildings are more comfortable and attractive to users. “They are also less likely to contribute to health problems and more likely to enhance productivity and learning” (Brown, 2003).

It is also very fitting for an organization that is serving the community to send a message that says “we care about you and the future of the world.” The construction of a library building is an investment in the future because through library collections citizens can gain knowledge and learn their history. Since public libraries are funded with public funds, it is only right that the library show their sense of responsibility to insuring a better future for their community. “The creation of sustainable communities lies very much at the heart of the library's mission” (Boydon & Weiner, 2001).

Conclusion

Changing the physical structure of libraries is having a huge impact on their future. By spending money now to update buildings with green architecture and flexible technology solutions, libraries will save money which can be spent on providing more materials and better service. Building new striking library buildings attracts visitors for the novelty, but these new libraries are finding that the users keep returning. By tailoring buildings to the users and the community’s needs, libraries become a vital resource to the people they serve.

Our society has not become paperless, post-print one, but there is serious competition from other formats. Libraries are embracing their traditions and creating a new vision for the twenty- first century by incorporating cutting edge technology. "There is simply no way a virtual experience like the Internet will ever replace the real experience of coming to a library. Libraries are the future and librarians are the very best information guides" (Williams 2002).

Jennifer W.

References

Boydon, L. & Weiner, J. (2001). Creating Sustainable Libraries. Library Journal (1976) Buyer's Guide, (December 2001), 8-10.

Brown, B. (2003). The New Green Standard. Library Journal, 128(20), 61-64.

Bundy, A. (2004). Places of Connection: New Public and Academic Library Buildings in Australia and New Zealand. Library Buildings Conference, Bournemouth, UK.

Demas, S. G. & Scherer, J. A. (2002). Esprit de Place: Maintaining and designing library buildings to provide transcendent spaces. American Libraries, 33(4), 65-68.

Emberton, F. & Stanley, J. (2005). Studying progressive libraries: An adventure in New Zealand. Marketing Library Services, 19 (2), Accessed on July 7, 2005 at http://www.infotoday.com/mls/mar05/StanleyEmberton.shtml

Hatch, M. J. (1997). Organizational theory: Modern, symbolic, and postmodern perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.

Kenney, B. (2003). The Library Reloaded. Library Journal, 128(20), 8-10.

Kenney, B. & Martin, E. (2004). Great Libraries in the making. Library Journal, 129(20), 70-72.

Williams, J. F. (2002). Shaping the "experience library." American Libraries, 33(4), 70-72.

Social Entrepreneurship: Postmodern Perspectives in Practice

“Social entrepreneurs identify resources where people only see problems. They view the villagers as the solution, not the passive beneficiary. They begin with the assumption of competence and unleash resources in the communities they’re serving.” – David Bornstein

Oregon Public Broadcasting recently aired a program called The New Heroes, profiling social entrepreneurs and their organizations across the world. Just as there is value in looking at Bacharach and Baratz’s organization theories involving community, there is also organizational value to be learned by looking at social entrepreneurship. The stories in The New Heroes tell of people working as catalysts for change within societies and communities. As library and information managers, we will also be in a position to become catalysts for change within our own organizations.

Social entrepreneurship could be the poster child for the postmodern perspective. Although the role of the social entrepreneur may be seen as a modernist change agent, the change and innovation does not come from the top of a hierarchy. The postmodern view of social constructionism “does not locate power in the individual, but in the social collectivity. We cannot, as individuals, choose a different reality and impose it on others, the others must participate as well” (Hatch, 1997, p.367). This also complements Karl Weick’s theories of enactment, where “conditions in the environment cannot be separated from perceptions of those conditions” (Hatch, 1997, p.93). Could social entrepreneurship be one of the non-traditional approaches that Weick (Hatch, 1997, p.374) suggested be used to study organizational learning?

In the OPB production, enactment theory and social constructionism are demonstrated particularly well in the story of Albina Ruiz, who assisted citizens living off of garbage dumps to develop and operate a solid waste program. The deconstruction of truths and questioning of assumptions held by the banking world are seen in the story of Muhammad Yunus. In all of the stories presented in the series, the postmodern idea of giving a voice to marginalized and disadvantaged peoples is taken one step further – not only are the communities and people given a voice, they are given an opportunity to participate in their own change.

How can libraries learn from these organizations? Who are our heroes? Although libraries are often structured as hierarchies within larger bureaucracies, I believe there are opportunities for organizational learning that can be found in social entrepreneurship. From social constructionism, we learn that power is not in the library organization or institution, but in the community. For example, easily accessible to its community members through its location in a shopping mall, Lake Forest Park Library in Washington provides wireless internet access for the thriving community center, Third Place Commons, that is located in the same mall. As more organic structures within larger mechanistic organizations, outreach programs offer other opportunities for innovation. Examples include the Multnomah County School Corps and the Pioneer Library System in Eastern Oregon. Both deliver resources to disadvantaged members of the community.

So who are the heroes that you know?


- L M Cipolla


Resources:

Davis, D. (Producer). (2005). The New Heroes [Television series]. Portland, OR: OPB.

Gillis, T, & Roberts, S. (2005, April). Connecting the Dots: Providing Excellence in Library Service Throughout Eastern Oregon. Presentation at the annual meeting of the Oregon Library Association, Portland, OR. Retrieved July 20, 2005, from http://pierce.eou.edu/misc/pls_ola2005PC.ppt

Hatch, M.J. (1997). Organization theory: Modern symbolic and postmodern perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.

What is social entrepreneurship? Retrieved July 10, 2005, from http://www.pbs.org/opb/thenewheroes/whatis/index.html

The Disservice of Great Service to TQM based Organic Organizations

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM) is an important new philosophy in our post-modern society as organizations compete in the market place hoping that attractive service to the customer will give them the winning edge. By decentralizing decisions and giving accountability and responsibility to even the lowest level employee, which is a major component of organic organizations, the customers ideally receive the best service and the best experience due to the instant adjustments to their demands allowed by each employee. A consequence to this accepted heterogeneity is that customers’ expectations may not be met on every occasion resulting in attrition that generates more problem solving for upper-level decision makers and decreases progress and profit. Therefore, reducing variability in the service offered, which goes against the principles of an organic organization, is encouraged to retain the customer base by consistently meeting the customers’ expectations.

TQM and Service
TQM is an innovative management strategy, developed shortly after WWII, which is changing the paradigm of U.S. businesses. By divorcing the organization from the traditional method of “management by objectives” which uses statistical quotas to drive productivity, a system which puts egotistical appearance above the organization’s overall strategy for success, more focus has been placed upon the employees on the battle front, those interacting with the customers. The main elements of TQM include: employee involvement; error free processes; internal and external customers; performance measurement; continuous improvement; and that quality is defined by the perception of the customer.

Five of the six main elements are quantifiable by analysis of the internal systems and work groups. They can be measured easily for management teams to troubleshoot and to redirect plans. The sixth main element, however, suggests to measure a subjective perception of the organization through the eyes of the environment and to use this feedback to dictate adjustments. Gathering accurate feedback from customers may never be accomplished especially when the customer might not know exactly what they want or is unwilling to share their opinions. What researchers can conclude is that most customers are satisfied with the product or service ONLY when it meets or exceeds their expectations. Oftentimes the only (and the most impacting) feedback that an organization receives is when the product or service DOES NOT meet those expectations. Angry customers turn into absent customers which forces marketing departments to scramble for new ones, financial officers to massage the books, training teams to try different policies, and sales staff to stress over low returns. The simple solution that allows upper-level decision makers to focus on the growth of their organization and truly benefit from their organic structure would be to reduce the amount of encounters with customers that do not meet their expectations. To do this, organizations must understand that superior service means understanding and meeting customer expectations.

The Zone of Tolerance
Researchers from the University of Texas A&M defined a zone of tolerance for each customer which dictates the perception of the service provided. On a continuum from low to high expectations, if the service falls between adequate (acceptable) and desired (what can and should be) the customer will likely walk away happy and return on another day. The zone, however, is not rigid for each individual in the customer base, and not even rigid for the same customer on different days. Despite the fickleness of the various personalities that frequent the organization, there are a few constants to assist management teams:

The cost of the product or service will expand the zone of tolerance when the product is cheap and contract the zone when the product is expensive. A driver of a BMW, for instance, will raise his or her level of adequate service and reduce the zone whereas the driver of a Kia might not be so particular.
The basic business principles of supply and demand also affect the zone. If all of the hotel rooms in town are occupied because of a convention (high demand / low supply), the customer might be thrilled to even get a room for the night and widen the zone. If there are many vacancies in many hotels (low demand / high supply), the zone will shrink and the customer becomes more discerning.
An experienced consumer who has many encounters in which to compare each interaction with service personnel will have a narrower zone verses a neophyte with a credit card. An elderly customer shopping in the same hardware store for 30 years will have a precise expectation of service whereas a new couple to the neighborhood does not have any previous encounters to base this experience upon.
In regard to the five dimensions of service - Reliability, Tangibles, Responsiveness, Assurance, and Empathy – Reliability consistently is the most important quality to the customer. Simply, customers want services to be what they are supposed to be and the rest are just extras.

What management teams and service personnel need to understand is that hitting the zone consistently for each customer on each encounter is tantamount to success. Obviously, hitting below the zone, or providing inadequate service, is highly discouraged, yet, this author proposes that hitting above the zone, or providing great service is also damaging to the organization.

Negative Effects of providing Great Service
In view of the above-defined constants of the zone of tolerance, any person in a service position would want to have a nice wide target to hit. When the zone is broad, the likelihood of the service personnel to perform in a manner that is perceived by the customer to be outside the zone is greatly reduced. Since a tenet of TQM is that quality is defined by the perception of the customer, wide zones breed high quality. Therefore, a priority to the organization should be to employ policies and procedures that deny contraction of the zone; and the variability in the service offered is the first place where rigidity is encouraged.
The danger of earning a perception that is below the zone reduces the chances of a repeat customer. That individual will simply find another purveyor of the service. When the earned perception is above the zone, above the desired level, that experience will narrow the target zone due to the constant of experience, defined as point #3 above, and raise both levels of what is adequate and what is desired. Then, when they return on a different day and interact with a different associate who provides them with service that is below their zone, not because of inadequacy but because he or she is providing the adequate level of service expected by the management, the customer’s perception of the encounter is not high quality because now the standard service lies below their zone. If, however, policy is rigid and service expectations are well defined, meaning associates avoid “special deals”, going above and beyond, and breaking his or her back to cater to the whims of a “squeaky wheel”, the zone is well established day after day, associate after associate.
The end result is that customers know what to expect, and get what they expect. When this happens, as defined above, the organization is reliably meeting their expectations and, in effect, providing superior service which keeps them coming back.

Everybody wins
The suggestion above to refrain from exceeding the customer’s expectation does not advocate exhibiting consistently bad service. Rather, it is a recommendation for upper management to establish very a clear definition of their company-wide policies to reign in rogue service personnel. This will make the TQM based organization a little less organic yet the benefits are far reaching for all involved.

1. The management teams can continually look for improvements to reduce errors in their processes instead of troubleshooting complaints.
2. The marketing team can continue to grow the client base, both internally and externally, instead of replacing the individuals who take their business elsewhere.
3. Product development can go forward due to expected funds allowing the company to be more innovative, making better products for lower costs.
4. Performance measures will have fewer errors and unknown factors because of the consistency of the customer base.
5. The organization will yield more profits, ensuring longevity and job security.

It is the customer who really wins. He can now receive a better product at the same price, or the same product at a lower price, from a company that will remain in operation to continually supply him year after year. He receives assurance of quality because he knows exactly what to expect each and every time without fail.

The Zone and Libraries
Libraries are in a wonderful position to consistently hit the customer’s zone. One of the constants regarding the dynamics of the zone of tolerance involves the principles of supply and demand (#2). The zone widens when the supply is low. Who can compete against the services and resources available in the library? One argument would be the Internet, but the customer has to rely on his or her own searching aptitude. Also, consider cost. Is free inexpensive enough? The above-mentioned constant (#1) states that the zone widens when the monetary investment is small. Since there is no competition for the library system and you have already paid for it with your taxes (which the government would have taken anyway regardless of where it actually went), the zone ought to be the size of the side of a barn.
In regard to the two remaining constants of experience and reliability, if librarians put their utmost effort into providing a highly reliable service (#4), the right resource for the right person in the right format at the right time, and they do this with every experience (#3), libraries remain established in the communities, new libraries can be developed due to proper management of funds, librarians keep their value and jobs, and customers get exactly what they are seeking.

Conclusion
TQM does not mean total quality for this one customer at this one time and the customer is not always right. Total Quality Management means total quality for all customers and all employees across time. This shift in management style might be a bitter pill for some, yet if seen through with diligence and an unwavering focus on superior service, customers will be banging down the doors. – David Janusz


References

Parasuraman, A., Berry , L.L., & Zeithaml, V.V. (1991). Understanding customer expectations of service. Sloan Management Review , (Spring),d in: 39-48.

Rowley, J. (1996). Implementing TQM for library services: The issues. ASLIB Proceedings, 48(1), 17-21.

Schlenker, J. A. (1998). Total Quality Management: An overview. Retrieved on July 18, 2005 from http://www.hrzone.com/topics/tqm.html

Library Leadership, Feminism, and Our Changing World

Why do I embrace the label, “feminist?” How do I define feminism, and how should my feminism influence my organization? Feminism is one of many lenses I accept and call my own. I have explored the term in multiple contexts – through theatrical theory, biblical studies, popular culture, classical music, historical movements, Shakespearian literature and now in my current field, library and information science. Although librarianship is riddled with issues which should be addressed by the feminist perspective, one which has echoed over and over during the course of my studies has been the gender imbalance in library management.

One of the most commonly cited statistics on this issue is Sarla Murgai’s 1991 finding that while 80% of people who worked in libraries were female, 80% of managers were males (i.e. Kaufman 1993). Does this not seem intuitively unjust? Without going into detail, I must refer back to Dewey’s assertion that librarianship was a simple profession, fit for the inferior sex. Librarianship, along with elementary education, nursing, and many other helping, dominantly female professions, has a history of being disrespected and underpaid (Turock, 2001). It is beyond the scope of this article to address all of these issues, but a prime example of the bias against women, even in a “women’s profession” is that men still “manage” women. Should the situation change? If so, how should we go about making that change?

While exploring the literature on this topic, it seems that there are two camps of thought on how to handle the currently disproportionate leadership situation. While I hesitate to model a binary – ironically inappropriate from many feminist viewpoints – I feel that when it comes to librarianship and the debate about gender and leadership, approaches to solving the debacle emphasize one perspective or the other.

Most people who study gender adhere to the idea that gender is not inherent. To take examples from management, there is no femininity gene which makes women “interpersonally-oriented,” or masculinity gene which makes men “task-oriented” (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, & van Engen, 2003). Whether or not masculinity and femininity are biological ultimately matters little, as the nurturing Western society has become such a powerful determinant in influencing people into our respective genders. Indeed, the cultural expectations have infiltrated (Western) society to such an extent, that one study found that more women believe there are differences in management style between the sexes than men (Hayes, 2004). Women become their “own worst enemies” as they ingest societal expectations and doubt their management capabilities (Wall, 1985). There are two broad fields of thought on how to combat these debilitating factors.

One side of the debate portends that women need to adopt more “masculine” management traits in order to gain power within the system. Mary R. Somerville’s article “Yin Management in a Yang World” (1995) emphasized this perspective, providing tips, such as “Women need to learn to be direct with men, as well as to speak out” (p. 32). I trace the philosophy behind articles like this to the idea that women and men are not biologically gendered, but that the social genders which have developed make men superior to women for management positions – all women need to do in order to become “better” managers is to use “male” management styles.

The other perspective the literature reflects is that women are actually better managers themselves, especially when compared against the background of current trends in organization theory. Here we must acknowledge that the world – and every organization’s consequent environment - is changing more drastically than it ever has before. According to Backer, “the pace of change is increasing, . . . an increasing amount of change involves both destabilization and diminishing resources, . . . [and] the nature of change itself is changing” (1998). This sets the old ways of structuring organizations up for a fall. “Bureaucracy is not set up to accommodate constant change. . . . Whenever flexibility is a primary consideration in work, bureaucracy is a hindrance” (Hatch, 1997, p. 172). This societal shift has led to changes in the ways organizations are structured, from the hierarchal model of bureaucracy to more fluid and organic models such as the matrix and network structures. Within these new organizational structures, new kinds of managers are needed – new kinds of managers with many of the traits typically attributed to women.

Libraries need to pay close attention to these changes in our organizational environment. Not only does the rate of change and technological innovation affect us directly, but our status as a women-dominated profession puts us in a critical place. The commodification and rising value of information, technological change, changing management structures, and women’s studies all come together in the organization of the library.

How can we respond to our changing environment appropriately? By taking this opportunity to play to our strengths – if women are the managers of the future, libraries should be ahead of their time. If women need to change in order to become the good managers that men are naturally, they need to ignore their hesitancy and reach for that goal. What we really need to do as organizations, though, is to take advantage of the strengths of both genders in order to make libraries the best they can be. After all, our patrons are not of a fixed gender, so our organization should not be committed to one way of thinking.

Ultimately, the differences between sexes is less substantial than the differences within one gender or the other – society is moving toward a liquidation of the whole concept of gender, and the male/female binary is coming to an end. We need to look beyond gender to find the appropriate, customized “management technique” for each managerial choice. Although our history includes a chasm between the genders’ management skill, we must hope that the future will yield a more flexible range of management values. The world is moving that way, and as leaders in the library and information science field, we have an opportunity to make a real difference and pull our organizations into the future.

Raina

Works Cited (additional resources available upon request)
Backer, T.E. (1998). Dissemination in a time of great change. Science Communication. 20(1), 142-147.

Eagly, A.H., Johannesen-Schmidt, M.C., & van Engen, M.L. (2003). Transformational, transactional and laissez-faire leadership styles: a meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological Bulletin. 129(4), 569-592.

Hatch, M.J. (1997). Organization theory: modern, symbolic and postmodern perspectives. Oxford: Oxford U Press.

Hayes, J., Allinson, C.W., & Armstrong, S.J. (2004). Intuition, women managers and gendered stereotypes. Personnel Review. 33(4), 403-417.

Kaufman, P.T. (1993). Library leadership: does gender make a difference? Journal of Library Administration. 18(3-4), 109-129.

Turock, B.J. (2001). Women and Leadership. In M.D. Winston (Ed.), Leadership in the library and information science professions: theory and practice (pp. 115-137). Binghampton: Haworth.

Wall, C. (1985). Self-concept: an element of success in the female library manager. Journal of Library Administration. 6, 53-66.

Strategic Planning for the Future

The library district I work for just went through its first ever strategic planning process to determine the goals and concerns of the community. I admire the effort but based on the Social Network Analysis article and the Hatch text, I see some flaws in the execution.

First, and this is not unique to this library district, there is no common understanding of the role of the library and librarians. The strategic planning did not initialize by asking what does the library do for the community now, instead it asked for service area priorities for the next five years. If the community and the library don’t have a starting point of what the library is and what librarians do, how can it be modified? Most people using the library assume that everyone who works there is a librarian. Certainly there are overlapping functions between professionals and clerical staff but how does the organization set service priorities for all staff when their responsibilities and duties are so different? While marketing seems to be a mostly capitalist enterprise, it seems an important and frequently overlooked aspect for libraries. Libraries need to market their services and capabilities to larger segments of the community.

My second critique of the strategic planning process is the participants. Hatch discusses hegemony in the Marxist sense, interpreting the interests of the ruling class as universal. In a slightly toned down version, this interpretation could be used to describe the views of the library administration and library users. In the Social Network Analysis article, the authors state people tend to interact with people who are similar to them in regards to race, gender and age. They comment that while this is common practice, this can lead to bias by decision-makers. The strategic planning process culled its information from community members who attended information-gathering groups at various libraries in the district. No effort was made to go outside the library community to speak with non-users and determine what they would like in the library or what would make them come into the library.

My final point is a variation on the previous point. The clarion cry of diversity is constantly rung by the library director, however, the findings of the strategic plan indicate that participants did not value services to teens or mention racial, gender or age diversity. Could this be because there were no teen participants in the study? Again, the sessions were voluntary and all were welcome but the fact that they were all held at libraries and there was no effort made to have session for teens makes the results unsurprising.

I understand the realities of the budget and the impossibility of being all things to all people. I salute the efforts of the library for undertaking the strategic planning process but due to the several reasons mentioned, I am not optimistic for a beneficial outcome. If the library board and director had paid more attention to organization theory, the strategic planning process would be a more accurate reflection of community needs and interests and not the one-dimensional point of view of middle-aged, middle-class library users.

References:

Cross, R., Borgatti, S.P. & Parker, A. (2002, Winter). Making invisible work visible:
Using social network analysis to support strategic collaboration. California
Management Review, 44(2), 25-26.

Hatch, M. J. (1997). Organization Theory: Modern, symbolic and postmodern
Perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.

Andrea Bullock

Practicing Appreciative Inquiry in the Classroom

In her recent article in Library Trends, “The Promise of Appreciative Inquiry in Library Organizations,” Maureen Sullivan (2004) introduces her readers to the subject of Appreciative Inquiry. First theorized in 1980 by U.S. researchers David Cooperrider Suresh Srivastava, Appreciative Inquiry views organizations as having positive forces that deserve to be fostered and explored. A general philosophy as well as a strategy for change, Appreciative Inquiry supports the idea of finding what is already working well in an organization, and building on these positive attributes. As Sullivan writes, Appreciative Inquiry “is a process of collaborative inquiry to clarify the strengths, positive experiences, . . . achievements, and best qualities of a group, a situation, a relationship, or an individual” (p. 219).

The basic assumptions of Appreciative Inquiry, as summarized by Sullivan (2004), include the following:

* In every society, group, or organization, something works.

* Individuals have more confidence in journeying into the future if we carry with us some of these positive, productive, “already working” elements.

* There are multiple realities; organizations grow most effectively when valuing difference and diversity of background, opinion, and experience.

* The language we use creates our diverse realities.

As is evident from these characteristics, Appreciative Inquiry assumes that reality and experience are socially constructed, and that individuals/organizations move most effectively toward creating new experiences if they begin with what is positive and build on this. Appreciative Inquiry, then, assumes that an organization’s health grows from the healthful elements already present in the organization.

Appreciative Inquiry as Distinct from
Problem-Based Approaches to Development

Appreciative Inquiry contrasts with a more typical and traditional (but in Western organizations, still pervasive) approach to creating change: the problem-solving approach. A problem-solving approach to organizational development focuses on what is missing, dysfunctional, or otherwise “not working well” in an organization. This deficit-based paradigm, in Watkins and Mohr’s term (2001), it is so familiar to many of us that it appears to be a “natural” way of viewing change. The problem-centered paradigm has its roots in what Hatch (1997) would call a modernist approach to organization theory—which “places a high value on the machine metaphor (that we can take things apart, fix what is broken, and return to some ideal state)” (Watkins & Mohr, p. 10).

Appreciative Inquiry moves refreshingly away from this mechanistic focus on deficits-and-repair, and into a more organic, holistic, postmodernist realm. It is an approach to organizational development that, rather than “fixing” things, engages the facets of an organization in a complex dialogue that creates many positive possibilities for change, and moves the organization toward a desired future. As summarized by Watkins and Mohr (2001), organizations viewed according to the tenets of Appreciative Inquiry accept the complexity of the world; regard planning as a continuous process; embrace multiple ways to reach a goal; view the world as relational; and see language as the creator of “reality” (p. 11). In its postmodernist orientation toward accepting complexity and variety, and its valuing of language and dialogue as the constructors of our beliefs, goals, and experience, Appreciative Inquiry allows its practitioners to shift the flow of dialogue away from malfunction and toward exploring positive, productive experience, past and present.

Making Practical Connections:
Appreciative Inquiry and the Community/Organization of the Writing Classroom

While reading about Appreciative Inquiry this month, I found myself thinking (as I often do in my library studies) about my work as an instructor of introductory-level college writing courses. At first glance, teaching may seem to fall outside the realm of organizational activity. However, an academic class can be viewed as embracing organization-like qualities, according to the “Five Circles” model presented by Hatch (1997, p. 15). Like an organization, a class is made up of a social structure (students and instructor) and is embedded in a culture (the backgrounds and experiences students and instructor bring with them, as well as the course goals); it is shaped by a physical structure (a classroom, either virtual, actual, or both), uses technology in some form (computers, photocopy machines, etc.), and is embedded in an environment (the larger college or university). Therefore, it seems appropriate to refer to a college class as a kind of organization.

I drew several initial connections between my teaching and the goals of Appreciative Inquiry. For example, Appreciative Inquiry workshops often ask participants to think about a time when they were especially engaged in their work, and to reflect on what made the experience memorable (Watkins & Mohr, p. 59). Likewise, at the beginning of each new term, I have my Writing 121 or Writing 122 students write about a “memorable writing experience”—a time they can remember in which they felt that writing “worked” for them. The general motive of encouraging students to “think about what worked,” then, is aligned with Appreciative Inquiry goals.

In recognizing this connection between my own practices and Appreciative Inquiry—the idea that both A.I. practitioners and I start the process by asking participants to reflect on positive experiences—my first thought was a satisfied, “Ah! I already practice Appreciative Inquiry in my current ‘organization’—my classroom.” In reading more about Appreciative Inquiry, though, I came to a more shaded, sobering realization about how I practice its tenets in my teaching.

One of the key assumptions of Appreciative Inquiry (as suggested above) is that positive experience, supportive signals, and encouragement are more likely to engage people than pointing out their errors, criticizing people, or “warning” them. For example, one of the activities in the Appreciative Inquiry workshop described by Watkins and Mohr is to ask participants to think about

What happens when:

- You tell a three-year-old: “Don’t go near the pool”?

- Just before she swings the club, you tell your golfing partner: “Be really careful not to hit your ball into those trees on the right!” (p. 60)

Most participants will respond to these questions by saying that in the first case, the child will feel magnetically drawn to the pool by being advised not to go near it; and in the second case the golfer will be nervously worried about hitting the ball in the “wrong” direction rather than inspired to direct it smoothly toward a goal.

When I read these examples of why “negative encouragement” is so often discouraging, I realize that one area in my teaching where I have difficulty practicing the tenets of Appreciative Inquiry is in giving encouraging written feedback to my students (or members of my class/organization). I have learned, over the years, that it is more productive for students to hear from their instructor what they are doing well and can do even better in their essays. However, when I begin writing a letter of response to a student about her/his draft (which the student will later revise based on my written feedback), I often have to consciously “fight off” the language of deficits, errors, and problem solving.

Here, for example, is a typical, unrevised letter that, in the past, I might have submitted to a student about her essay in progress:

Carmen,

Your essay is off to a good start, but I have trouble following it because there is no clear organizational scheme. I am missing a sense of a “main idea” in your essay, so I am not really sure what you want to tell me in your paper. . . .

Fortunately, I have reached a level of insight in my teaching where, after beginning a letter in such a way, I am able to see that it is essentially a punitive document, more likely to encourage the student to dwell on her or his “flaws” than to build on what is working well in the paper. Reading about Appreciative Inquiry has reinforced for me that writers are inspired to strengthen their writing when the feel they have a foothold in what is already effective in their practices as writers.

A revised version of my letter to Carmen, more clearly aligned with the goals of Appreciative Inquiry and my philosophies as an instructor, might look like this:

Carmen,

Your essay is off to a good start. You are communicating a lot of energy in your paper about how reading Silent Spring helped you to make a connection between your relatives’ cancer and their being exposed to pesticides during World War II. I feel drawn in by your excitement and your use of detail. Now I would like to help you to organize your paper so that your readers can see more easily that you are making this important connection. One way to do this is. . . .

My revised letter to Carmen is effective because it describes (in detail) what is already working well in her draft. It enables the writer to assume—as she should—that she has the capability and “raw materials” in her draft to make a strong revised paper. It is aligned with the values of Appreciative Inquiry in being “optimistic and constructive. It is focused on what is good in . . . the present and what is possible in the future” (Quinn, 2004, p. 126).

Even after many years of teaching, it is not easy for me to communicate with students in this way; the pull of problem-based discourse is strong. But in reading about Appreciative Inquiry, I have learned that in order to develop a healthy, hopeful, and energetic organization of writers—an group of students who know that they are improving, capable members of a discourse community—it is necessary to apply the principles of Appreciative Inquiry at every turn.

Jennifer Love
Eugene, OR
7/21/05

References

Hatch, M. J. (1997). Organization theory: Modern, symbolic, and postmodern perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.

Quinn, R. E. (2004). Building the bridge as you walk on it: A guide for leading change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Sullivan, M. (2004). The promise of appreciative inquiry in library organizations. Library Trends 53(1), 218-229.

Watkins, J. M., & Mohr, B. J. (2001). Appreciative inquiry: Change at the speed of imagination. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.

The Importance of Core Values

Libraries in a time of change

Public libraries are in a time of change, be it technological, managerial, or ever shrinking budgets. Now more than ever it is necessary that members of a library are working together as a cohesive organization to prove to their patrons, town, and governing agencies that they are a worthwhile and irreplaceable part of the community. In 1990, Harvard College Library’s strategic planning committee said, “in a period of profound change, a clear statement of both the mission and the organizational values of the HCL will provide context and direction for specific programs, experiments, or decisions” (Clack, 1995, p. 146). This statement holds true today for public libraries as well.

A core values case study

Existing organizations that want to incorporate core values into their culture have a challenging, but worthwhile, task ahead of them. Harvard College Library is a good model to follow. It is necessary to discuss with current employees the goal and the reasoning behind it. HCL created a task force to work with library staff. Over a year, in an inclusive process, the committee met with all employees and through individual and group exercises received lists of believed core values. The committee evaluated all proposed values and put similar values into “value families” (Clack, 1995, p. 149). After drafting a values statement they shared the proposed values with the organization and gave employees the opportunity to give feedback.

Schein’s theory

In the early 1980s, a social psychologist, Edgar Schein, developed an influential theory of organizational culture. His theory stated that culture exists on three levels. The surface level is made up of artifacts, defined as “the visible, tangible, and audible remains of behavior grounded in cultural norms, values, and assumptions” (Hatch, 1997, p. 216). The middle level is made up of values and behavioral norms. The deepest level is made up of assumptions (Hatch, 1997).

Core values

Core values, which fit into Schein’s middle level, outline the operating guidelines of an organization. It is important, as an existing organization adopts or re-evaluates its core values, to be conscious of the assumptions that exist within the organization. As Schein says, these assumptions make up the deepest level of culture. Hatch (1997) defines assumptions as “what members believe to be reality and thereby influence what they perceive and how they think and feel” (p. 210). Each employee in an organization may hold different assumptions. It must be acknowledged that proposed core values and assumptions can be at odds with each other. When this happens, the organization must evaluate why the assumptions, or believed reality of the employee(s), are not the same as the core values of the organization. Such information and feedback should be welcomed from employees and viewed as a time to re-evaluate. The organization then has the opportunity to address situations in which they may be operating that are contradictory to their core values.

Application of core values

Implementing core values into a culture that already exists is an extreme challenge. It is important that an organization, starting with its managers, demonstrates the organization’s core values in their behavior every day. Clack (1995) states that a library’s values must be “clarified, communicated, and ultimately assimilated by all staff so that performance is determined by broad, shared principles rather than by narrow rules or perspectives” (p. 146).

Conclusion

Core values should provide a common vision for employees, and should be equally applied and followed at all times. Consistency in core values proves to employees and patrons that an organization is committed to its vision. As libraries face many potential changes and challenges, unchanging core values can be the backbone of the organization.

Kari Rolston

References:

Clack, M.E. (1995). Values, a process of discovery: the Harvard College Library’s organizational process. Library Administration & Management, 9(3), 146-152.

Hatch, M.J. (1997). Organization theory: Modern, symbolic, and postmodern perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.

Patkus, R. & Rapple, B.A. (2000, Fall). Changing the culture of libraries: The role of core values. Library Administration and Management, 14(4), 197-204.

Core Values vs. Adequate Funding in Today’s Public Library

The library I work for is in trouble. Not close the doors, put out the “for sale” sign kind of trouble, but the kind of trouble that public libraries are in all over the country. Each budget cycle, the library, along with the other city departments, must prove its value to a city council increasingly focused on the bottom line. Recently the library staff was informed that we were going to improve that “bottom line” by becoming entrepreneurs, of sorts. We would sell advertising space in our breezeway, we would start selling tickets to high-profile author presentations, and we would hold “gaming nights” in our computer labs where gamers could pay a fee to play fantasy simulation games with other like minds. After the announcement, I ran into another library colleague who bemoaned the path we were taking, wondering how our “library vision” could have gone so far off track. Libraries have been trying to come up with creative solutions for their budgeting woes for many years now. Being identified as an “essential public good” no longer cuts it with municipalities that are hard pressed to provide basic police and utility services to its residents. If we, as library staff and supporters, see the public library as a basic necessity for every healthy community, AND we know that there is only a limited amount of funding that our supporting government structure can provide, AND we acknowledge that not all of the decision makers share our absolute belief in the importance of the library, how do we obtain adequate funding to provide library service that also meets our “core values” and doesn’t make a mockery of our vision statement?

Core Values

Collins and Porras define core values as “the essential and enduring tenets of an organization. A small set of timeless guiding principles, core values require no external justification; they have intrinsic value and importance to those inside the organization (as cited in Patkus and Rapple, 2000, p. 198).” If these values are well articulated and embodied throughout an organization’s operating levels they can have a profoundly positive effect on the success of that operation’s goals. In a business setting, those goals usually involve creating increasing profit for the organization. In a library setting, however, profit is not the motivator, and values take on even greater importance. Obviously public librarians don’t choose their profession for monetary reward. High idealism and sense of purpose are the common thread in describing what provides job satisfaction; providing service to the community is the most important underlying tenet. If one were to look at any particular public library’s list of core values, equal access to services would rank at the absolute top, as it does in the ALA’s Core Values Statement (2005). But equal access is under a constant state of erosion by fees imposed, often from outside budgetary entities, upon patrons for provision of services. As Hatch states, “When values are challenged, the challenge most often comes from marginal members of the organization, such as newcomers or revolutionaries, or from outsiders” (2004). Being forced to provide constantly less equal access goes a long way towards undermining that important sense of purpose that library workers share, which in turn affects their morale and ability to provide superior service.

How Do Libraries Deal with Equal Access and Unequal Funding?

Some libraries seem to have quite successfully navigated the precipice of providing adequate funding while maintaining their core values. Clay and Bangs describe how the Fairfax County Public Library in northern Virginia decided in the late 1990’s to turn around its downward spiral in the face of shrinking county funding with several innovative programs (2000). They, in effect, became a “public service corporation.” This involved looking for partnerships between the library, its foundation and local companies in providing services. In addition they became a Center for the Book, at that time the first associated with a local library system. This allowed them to offer both high profile fundraising events and a series of free events for their patrons. An award-winning website not only provided superior service to the library’s patrons, it brought fundraising needs and possibilities to the attention of the community. The library restructured its organization with the establishment of an Office of Planning and Evaluation to maintain constantly updated statistics about the library and its fundraising programs, and, most importantly, an “Enterprise Group” consisting of key library administration personnel to provide “the creative impetus for many of the programs that seek non-tax support to maintain quality service.”

Much smaller library systems also can successfully navigate those shark infested budgetary waters without encroaching on their core values. The Osterville (Massachusetts) Library, serving a community of only 3,500, augments its inadequate budget with a series of fundraising events ranging from selling used books and t-shirts to holding golf tournaments, auctions and a car raffle. They even sell soup and bread mixes with catchy slogans. (Stembridge, 2005). Although it seems undignified to sell soup mixes to support something as important as public library service, that lack of dignity may be one of those unwritten norms that libraries have to abandon to stay successfully afloat.

Other libraries seem to have taken tacks (or were forced into them from higher up) that are completely in conflict with their basic core values. In February 2004 the Bloomfield (New Jersey) Public Library instituted a $1 per hour fee for use of their internet stations. Added to the outcry from their patrons was the voice of ALA’s Office for Intellectual Freedom executive director, who declared, “fundamental principles of public librarianship should not be compromised [including] free, open, and equal access to information resources (New Jersey Town Reacts, 2004).”

What to do?

Our core values define who we are, much more in the public service sector than in the commercial arena. They are fundamental to maintaining a clear vision of what our role is in our communities. Although we can decry the lack of adequate public funding for this most essential mission of ours, reality forces us to look to funding outside of traditional sources. As Patkus and Rapple note, “Perhaps the greatest difficulty is actually putting the core values into action and having them successfully applied at all levels in daily decision making and actions (2000, p. 198).” To preclude having fund-raising methods such as offering fee-based services thrust upon us from the outside, which violates our most basic core value, we must creatively seek to identify and implement fund-raising sources that are in harmony with our basic tenets. In addition, we must clearly articulate our underlying principles and educate those who can adversely and positively affect their implementation.

Mary Beth H.

References:

American Library Association.(2005). Core Values Statement. Retrieved July 18, 2005 from http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/corevaluesstatement/corevalues.htm

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Clay, E. and Bangs, P. (2000). Entrepreneurs in the public library: Reinventing an institution. Library Trends, 48 (3), 606-18. Retrieved July 15, 2005 from Wilson OmniFile Full Text. <>

New Jersey town reacts to library internet fees. (2004). American Libraries, 35 (5), 19. Retrieved July 15, 2005 from Wilson OmniFile Full Text. <>

Patkus, R. and Rapple, B. (2000). Changing the culture of libraries: The role of core values. Library Administration & Management, 14 (4), 197-204. <>

Stembridge, K. (2005). Fundraisers R us. American Libraries, 36 (3), 38-9. Retrieved July 15, 2005 from Wilson OmniFile Full Text.

We Just Don’t Get Along: Conflict in the Library

It happens throughout the day. A librarian asks teenagers to turn down their headsets and they refuse. The person in charge (PIC) invites a belligerent drunk to leave. An angry parent demands to have the Internet filtered and a book removed from the shelf. Two library clerks get into a fight. The local paper publishes an inflammatory story about the library director’s salary.

Conflict arises often in both our public and private lives. In a library or information agency, the conflict may be large or small; it may occur between professionals, between management and labor unions, between library workers, between workers and patrons, or between the library institution itself and the community that it serves. The conflict might be prompted by cultural, racial, religious, or economic differences, or arise from differences in values and beliefs. Sometimes people just can’t get along.

The diverse environment of the library can provide for exceptional productivity and resourcefulness. It can also be a boiling cauldron. As our libraries are faced with issues such as funding and community support, conflict poses a threat to the very heart of an organization. It is, therefore, a topic worth examining.

Origins of Conflict Theory

The fields of sociology and biology first developed theories about consensus and conflict in societies, and began to define the absence of conflict as a state of equilibrium in a society. Hatch (1997) describes how modern organization theorists regarded conflict as dysfunctional and the antithesis of cooperation. This resulted in the creation of such mechanisms to deal with conflict as task forces and committees. A similar mindset still operates in some library settings: Conflict is never addressed in an open forum, and the lack of communication appears to drive the conflict underground rather than extinguish it. The culture of the library itself is affected as workers become disgruntled.

No discussion of conflict is complete without the theories of the social scientist and philosopher, Karl Marx, in the mid-1800s. His most well known work dealt with class conflict, specifically the opposition between the capitalists and the working class. According to Hatch (1997), Marx believed that capitalist societies would always be internally divided by ownership of the means of production. Although a library is not very similar to a factory in the 1850s, Marx’ theories can still be extended to explain stratification and conflict between professional, executive, and management branches, and less well-paid library staff. Decision-makers continue to be the determinants of political power.

Modern organization theories differ from the classical view in that they propose a relationship between conflict and organizational performance. In other words, conflict is not necessarily bad. Some highly competitive corporations deliberately create conflict and competition within their organizations to increase productivity and sales. According to NationMaster.com, a statistical data source, this idea was first used in the 1920s, when the president of General Motors created areas of overlap between divisions of the company so that, for example, the Chevy division competed with Pontiacs. In the 1930s, Proctor and Gamble initiated a deliberate system of brand rivalry. Each brand manager was given responsibility for the success or failure of the brand and was compensated accordingly. Most businesses also encourage competition between individual employees. An example of this is a contest between sales representatives. The sales rep with the highest sales over the period of the contest wins a paid vacation or some other prize.

Although it seems unlikely that a library administration would deliberately create competition between its branch libraries or different internal departments in order to increase its productivity, nevertheless there is often competition for resources and visibility.

Over time, conflict can become intractable and increasingly resistant to resolution attempts (Jamison, n.d.). According to Jamison, conflicts are considered intractable when there is 1) poor or nonexistent communication between parties, 2) extreme rigidity in positions, 3) a high level of hostility and attempts by at least one party to harm the other, and 4) conflict that is accepted as inevitable and glorified. Although Jameson is speaking of larger conflicts of war and terror, one can imagine even the smallest of organizations becoming so entrenched in conflict that it can no longer function.

Conflict Avoidance and Resolution

An entire industry of mediators, conflict counselors, and self-help authors exists solely to help organizations and individuals resolve conflict.

There are many approaches to conflict resolution in the library. One is to allow the disputants to work together to solve their own problem. This can be as simple as the two sides agreeing to compromise or finding a creative alternate solution together. Another approach is to bring in a third party to help the disputants reach a resolution. This can entail mediation, arbitration, or in some cases, relationship therapy (Lorenzen, 2005).

Within an organization, the common factor in conflict is that it always occurs between individuals or groups of individuals, and therefore, isn’t easily categorized in a theory. The personality of the managers of an organization can directly affect the amount of internal conflict. If a manager of a group, or another person in a position of leadership, is adept at dealing with conflict through communication and fair action, then the conflict in the group is likely to be manageable. Unfortunately it is not an uncommon work situation to have an incompetent manager or a difficult co-worker.

If we are to create a library environment in which conflict is acknowledged as inevitable but manageable, I believe that we can start by creating and communicating clear policies concerning behavior in the library. These policies must cover acceptable activities of patrons and library workers alike, and clear consequences if the rules are violated. An additional step is a commitment to diversity in the workplace through training and policy. The more we are aware of the potential for conflict, the more prepared we can be to deal with it.

-- Nancy Peate

References

Hatch, M. J. (1997). Organization theory: modern, symbolic and postmodern perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.

Jameson, J. (n.d.). Escalation and de-escalation of intractable conflict. Retrieved online July 16, 2005, at www.ncsu.edu.

Lorenzen, M. (2005). Conflict resolution and academic library instruction. Retrieved online July 17, 2005 at http://www.libraryinstruction.com/conflict.html

The Monorail Derailed


In 1962, Seattle built the world’s first monorail system for the World’s Fair. The monorail connects downtown with the Space Needle and is mostly a tourist attraction. In 2002, voters passed a resolution to add a 14-mile commuter line to the system. Lately, however, the plan has been under close media scrutiny and there is a good chance that the Monorail will be delayed, shortened or even cancelled. If the Seattle Monorail Project had used organization theory perhaps this crisis could have been averted.


Core Values

In their 2000 article, “Changing the Culture of Libraries: the Role of Core Values,” Ronald Patkus and Brendan A. Rapple discuss the importance of having a core values statement to let employees, customers and others know “the central beliefs and operating principles of an organization (197).” Organizations that create good core values statements and make them of central importance are able to weather change and uncertainty and keep their vision, remaining “fixed and unchanged (198).”

It seems that the Seattle Monorail Project could benefit from a core values statement. On July 19, 2005, the Monorail project produced a new two-page action plan, but nothing in the way of core values has ever been issued. The Monorail has many problems; the cost is estimated to be one billion dollars per mile, and it will take taxpayers upwards of forty years to pay off. There are no plans to connect the monorail to the light rail system being constructed across town. However, the one of the biggest reasons that public support has been lost is the way the Monorail Project has been attempting to hide facts from the public. With a core values statement that has a commitment to public knowledge and involvement, perhaps the Monorail would not have lost so much public support. If taxpayers are going to be paying for something for forty years, they like to know the truth about it.


Decisions

In her book, Organization Theory (1997), Mary Jo Hatch states, “When there is disagreement over goals or over the preferred means for pursuing goals, then the decision making process will be open to the effects of power and politics (283).” Perhaps because of the lack of core values, the Monorail Project is having a hard time choosing a direction and making decisions during this organizational crisis. Two weeks ago, the board director for the Project resigned, leaving a power vacuum that has yet to be filled. According to the recent Action Plan, the Monorail is going to try to find direction. Public meetings are to be held, and the fate of the Monorail must be decided within ninety days. Now politics will decide the fate of the project, and it is unclear whether the monorail will go forward or die away.

--Ashlie Bornzin


References

Hatch, M. (1997). Organization theory. New York: Oxford University Press.

Patkus, R. and Rapple B. A. (2000). Changing the culture of libraries: the role of core values. Library Administration & Management, 14(4), 197-204.

Choi, B. (2005, July 19). Seattle Monorail Board seeks to win back public support. Retrieved July 20, 2005 from http://www.king5.com/localnews/stories/NW_071405WABmonorailprojectLJ.10e823ec.html

Resource Dependence Theory and the School Media Center

The year I was born Gerald Salancik and Jeffrey Pfeffer published their ideas concerning resource dependence theory. In their book The External Control of Organizations they describe how the environment surrounding an organization has a profound impact and how managers can successfully traverse this environment. Over two decades later their ideas are still applicable. A brochure distributed by the American Association of School Librarians entitled The Principal’s Manual for Your School Library Media Program utilizes this theory through describing the centrality of the media center and the resources needed to create successful outputs; in this case graduates.

Created by a High School librarian seeking to educate school leaders in the importance of healthy school libraries this brochure encourages principals to explore the connections between the media center and the rest of the school as well as the surrounding community. The brochure is designed to be read in a few minutes and offers reasons to support the library which principals can identify with. It also offers four simple steps an administrator may use to begin supporting the media center. In a synchronized manner this brochure outlines the resources needed to create a healthy media center which assists in creating successful graduates. Admittedly, each school district is unique and faces its own challenges within the surrounding community; however, this brochure offers a starting point. It discusses generalized issues plaguing many schools including funding, a lack of communication between the media center librarian and staff and a lack of vision or direction for the library. The brochure suggests the library is the “heart” or “hub” of the organization which is interconnected with all other parts. Input, in this case students, pass through the library which in turn assists in creating an output of graduates.

Unfortunately not all school administrators understand the necessity for well funded and well staffed media centers. It is the responsibility of the school librarian to educate administrators in the importance of supporting the library. This should be done in a tactful manner in which the principal can easily identify with. Pointing out the centrality of the media center and its role in producing successful graduates is an excellent place to start.


Julie H.


References

To view a copy of The Principal’s Manual visit: http://www.ala.org/ala/aasl/schlibrariesandyou/administrators/schoollibraries.htm


Hatch, M.J. (1997). Organizational theory: Modern, symbolic, and postmodern
perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.

Uncertainty Won't Kill Your Organization, Unless You Let It

A requirement of my bachelors program was that I undertake a full-time (40 hours per week) field study with a non-profit agency for a period of 6 months. The agency I chose was in the process of implementing a new youth services program, and I accepted an unpaid internship with them to help with its launch. My experiences with the program (let's call it TeenWorks*) taught me several lessons about the different types of managers there are, the different issues they face, and the numerous ways one manager might approach resolution of a problem. Investigating these managerial practices from the standpoint of organization theory yields several lessons worth a look.

I began working with TeenWorks in January, 2000. As a condition of the field study assignment, interns were required to keep detailed daily field notes on their experience. I will be referencing excerpts from those field notes as I review my experiences with TeenWorks in light of my recent foray into organization theory.

The Organization and its Structure:
At the time the youth services division had only two employees: Emma*,the supervisor of all of the youth programs and Patricia*, the supervisor of the TeenWorks program. My initial thought was that I was hesitant to accept a position with an organization which only had two employees. I considered this a potential source of strife rather than a highly organic two-person organization. Ultimately, the organic nature of the youth services programs and the unclear boundaries between vertical differentiation and horizontal differentiation lead to the failure of the TeenWorks program. Vertical differentiation refers to the number of levels from the highest position (Emma) in an organization to the lowest (Patricia) whereas horizontal differentiation refers to the number of different units or departments within an organization (Hatch, 1997, p.168).


Fig. 1

Within this organization of two full-time employees it could be nearly impossible to discern the varying types of differentiation. This uncertainty lead to a series of questions which ultimately could never be answered. This is the crux of the Social Constructionist enactment argument, which Hatch (1997) says is the process of receiving demands from decision makers who themselves feel uncertain about the decisions they need to make (p. 93). This process causes them to seek more and more information and thus the process spirals onward. Lack of certainty, need for more information, employees go slowly crazy. Emma clearly managed from a place of uncertainty in her decisions because she had never clarified the organization of the organization; to herself, to her employees, and to the clients.

The endless questions I had at the time reflect the enactment argument as explained by Hatch (1997). She says, "the enactment view sees individuals constructing environments and then responding to their constructions as if the environment they created was forcing them to do so—at which point it is" (pp. 93-94). Was Emma my "boss" and should I take my cues for the division of labor from her and then share that labor with Patricia? Was Patricia, with whom I interacted with more frequently, my boss? When both assigned me duties at the same time which should I consider more pressing? What if no one gave me instruction? Could I safely assume that it was fine to boss myself? Who was meant to boss the kids?

April 10, 2000
I've reached a point I never wanted to reach here in the office. I feel pointless. I think that Emma purposely gives me projects which necessitate checking in with her at every step. I don't have any idea why she does this.

This uncertainty created a great deal of conflict within the programs that could have been avoided by viewing the programs via a more symbolic-interpretive or postmodern perspective. A postmodern analysis of the organization might have yielded an understanding of the ways in which uncertainty could be useful to a series of programs hinging on the work of an uncertain body of teenaged participants.

One way in which Emma might have relieved a lot of the stress on herself, her employees, her clients, and her organization was to relinquish some control. Accept that an organization based on the needs and availability of teenaged clients is not likely to be a highly complex or formal environment while the lack of certainty can create situations that are themselves complex. In the language of postmodernists, reality is subjective because the "real world" is constructed from our experiences, ideas, and statements.

Programs in Competition/Employees in Competition:
Unfortunately, the two simultaneous youth programs came to exist in a state of contention. One constantly battling another for resources and clients.

May 2, 2000
I feel like I keep running into the same wall with Emma and TeenWorks over and over and I'm fairly certain Patricia feels the same way.
We have these meetings with Emma and discuss how if TeenWorks is to be a success she's going to have to encourage the kids already involved in county youth programs to take the initiative and tell people about it.
She always agrees at first and says that we're right, the other programs do need to take a more active interest in the success of the TeenWorks program but nothing ever happens, or she agrees for about five minutes and then changes her mind five minutes later.
I know that it isn't true but some days it is hard not to think that she enjoys the status quo because it makes the programs that she initiated seem that much more successful.

Ultimately this sense of competition need not have been a source of stress. This is an area where a postmodern understanding of Hatch's (1997) collage metaphor (or any similar understanding of the postmodern perspective) would have allowed for a less contentious existence.

Hatch understands the postmodern take on organization theory to be similar to a collage. She says, "contradiction, ambiguity, and paradox"—the "pieces" of the organizational collage—can redefine issues of power and change (p. 55). These places of contention are a part of the organization itself, those parts of the organization become part of the environment that an employee of the organization inhabits. The behaviors of the employee within his or her environment in turn inform the organization. This cycle continues indefinitely: employee redefining organization, organization redefining employee.

This competition between programs can also exist between employees or people inhabiting the same environment for various reasons.

July 14, 2000
Today was not great at all.
Patricia and I decided to have a check-in with Emma to discuss how each of us feels the staff retreat had gone. I don't think anything got done at all. It was the same stuff that we always discuss; we need more kids, the kids we have need to do more, someone will argue that we need people to get people and so it goes.
Emma interrupted my component of the discussion to snap something rhetorical and unfriendly at me about having not tried her suggestions. This was meant to imply that her suggestions were more useful than mine.
Patricia implored Emma and I not to speak to one another with so little respect. I felt that I had said nothing disrespectful but deferred to my supervisor (I think?!) and said nothing. Spoke to Patricia later and she confirmed that I had said nothing wrong and that Emma is my "boss" and should never have spoken to me the way that she did. I don't understand what happened today.

Again, the pieces of the collage exist as independent identities but also as a new, separate entity once they come together. Emma and I should never have been in competition over suggestions. We each bring a different reality to the table and neither is more or less valid than the other. The two in conjunction should be seen as a means to exploring multiple alternatives, inventing multiple solutions to multiple problems.

I believe that this schism between myself and management of the organization was detrimental to the organization for two reasons. First, in expending so much energy trying to understand what I was "allowed" to say to my manager, I lost a lot of time that should have been spent contributing to the success of the organization. Second, I believe that this lack of clarification of my role and its weight had a direct impact on the lack of respect the involved teens gave the group and the commitments to it that they had made. Had they felt that they had a solid team of mature adults to support them and hold them to their commitments they might have made a more concentrated effort to keep TeenWorks running.

Implications for Library and Information Managers:
So, what can my experiences with TeenWorks and Emma's unclear managerial style lend to the field of information management? A few lessons:

1. Your employees need to know "what is going on". If the organization is such that there's never a clear understanding of what's going on, make that known—it can relieve a tremendous amount of stress within the organization. Uncertainty is not always bad, being uncertain about the uncertainty is never good.

If your public library fits a community hub model it is likely to be more noisy and chaotic than a library fitting a "repository of books" model or an academic library. One day may bring 60 students age 8 to the map room, the next may find the day beginning with 15 homeless patrons looking for a restroom after the closing of alocal shelter. One can never be too sure what the day will hold.

2. Don't make them fight it out if there's no reason. Let them fight it out if it's getting you somewhere.

If your popular library and your government documents departments are not in budgetary competition, let them do their own thing (within reason). They each contribute to the (postmodern) reality of your library. Competition between them may only serve to drive down their respective productivity levels. Alternately, if your young adult and graphic novels programs are each competing for the same allotment it may be useful to let one department drive the other. Only the unique makeup of your individual library can inform you (as management) as to what the "right" decision will be. If you can't workout what the right decision is, don't force your employees into a space of unwitting, unwilling decision making on your behalf. They only know so much.

3. There's no such thing as too many cooks spoiling the soup; a particular soup can't exist without each contributing chef.

Your library is unique. Take your cues from other organizations but don't forget that each individual component of your library is necessary to its function. Don't feel as though yours is the only correct perspective and don't throw out your "extra" cooks for disagreeing with you, after all it is likely that they were hired for a reason. Diversity is a good thing.

* Names of people and organizations have been changed.

Allinee

References:

Hatch, M.J. (1997). Organizational theory: Modern, symbolic and postmodern
perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.

Core Values and Ambiguity

Core values are important tools that libraries can use in constructing their social reality, but there can be many problems associated with the concept of core values. The main problem with core values is their ambiguity. First let us discuss what is meant by core values. Core values are essentially, “statements that make known to employees, customers, and others the central beliefs and operating principles of an organization” (Patkus and Rapple, 2000, p. 197). But what exactly are core values for a library? Certainly each library may have a different set of core values, but it would be helpful to look at one list and see what problems such core values may have on the social perception of a library. The ALA has a list of ten core value statements:

1) Access,
2) Confidentiality/Privacy,
3) Democracy,
4) Diversity,
5) Education and Lifelong Learning,
6) Intellectual Freedom,
7) The Public Good,
8) Preservation,
9) Professionalism,
10) Service, and
11) Social Responsibility (ALA, 2004).

As noted earlier the fundamental problem with core values is their ambiguity. The terms can be interpreted differently for different people. The ten concepts listed above are not fixed in meaning and there would be disagreement on what the values actually meant. If we analyze some of the above values we can see how easily different interpretations influence how we understand the core values.

Access
Access is an important core value but the concept itself does little to differentiate what kind of access a library should endorse. Does access to information include access to Internet pornography? There will be disagreement about what is entailed by access. Some library workers may feel that access needs to be absolutely unencumbered, regardless of the content of the information; other library workers will feel differently and may want to restrict the concept of access to things other than Internet pornography or sexually explicit materials on the library shelves. In fact, although libraries may adopt the concept of access as a core value there may be institutional pressures to hinder certain types of access. This can be seen when coercive pressures arise by the government demanding Internet filters in order to receive government funding. Normative pressures may also have a significant impact here when libraries see what other libraries are doing and may respond accordingly.

Confidentiality/Privacy
The value of confidentiality/privacy has been debated often recently in relation to the Patriot Act. There has been official ALA concern regarding certain aspects of the Patriot Act (ALA, 2005). But, it is not clear that all library workers and the community will share such a sentiment.

Diversity
This value is also subject to scrutiny. What type of diversity is the ALA referring to? Is it racial, ethnic, cultural, or behavioral diversity? Some individuals may find a commitment to diversity somewhat controversial. What type of policies will be used to ensure diversity? Will the library use a quota system and hire a certain number of introverts?

Intellectual Freedom
Here again we face similar problems we faced with the value of access. Do we want to place any restrictions on what materials are made available? Library workers and individuals in the community will disagree. And again there may be institutional pressures that impact how libraries interpret this value.

The Public Good
The value of the public good is probably the most ambiguous of all the values listed by the ALA. The ALA is referring to the idea that libraries are public goods (ALA, 2004). But this cannot be true in and of itself. Libraries must work hard to become a public good. They do not get to be public goods just because they are libraries. So how does a library become a public good? Do we exercise some kind of utilitarian calculus in order to determine the benefit the library has on a community? Are there certain services a library is obligated to provide in order to be a public good regardless of how useful the service is to the community? People do not agree on the public good; therefore there will be a divergence of views among library workers and the community.

Professionalism
To whom are these core values addressed? Is it just the professional staff, as the core value of professionalism seems to imply? Will there be a different set of core values for non-professional staff? And if there is a separate set of core values how do we ensure that these values do not conflict? If we keep the core value of professionalism it automatically excludes non-professional staff from having any vested interest in making sure that core values occupy a central part of their work. The core value of professionalism may be interpreted by non-professional staff as an endorsement of elitism and the denial of the value of non-professional staff input and labor.

Social Responsibility
If a library takes a stand on certain critical issues facing the community then they will automatically be drawn into a controversy whereby many people in the community will disagree with the library.

Core values are important to libraries. However we need to understand that people can interpret core values differently. According to the symbolic-interpretive approach reality is socially constructed. Core values are symbols that libraries can use to influence how a library is socially constructed. But this social construction of the library is not solely in the hands of the professional librarian. It is also in the hands of the non-professional library staff, as well as the community the library serves. If we do not consider the full ramifications of the core values we select we can foster a social construction of the library in direct opposition to the reality we would like to conceive. This does not mean that the values listed by the ALA are bad values and given the size of the ALA it is probably necessary to keep the list as ambiguous as possible. We need to keep in mind that for the core values of a library to have an impact they must be understood by everyone who works at the library and also should be made available to the community the library serves.

Chris Mayer



References

Patkus, R. & Rapple, B. (2000). Changing the culture of libraries. The role of core values,
Library Administration & Management Vol.14, 4, 197-204.

ALA. (2005). ALA president releases statement regarding USA PATRIOT act senate
Judiciary hearing. Retrieved 07/16/2005 from
http://www.ala.org/ala/pressreleases2005/april2005/pahstatement.htm

ALA. (2004). Core values task force II report. Retrieved 07/17/2005 from
http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/corevaluesstatement/corevalues.htm

Hatch, M.J. (1997). Organization Theory: Modern, Symbolic, and Postmodern
Perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.